Sector departments were created as part of a World Bank-wide reorganization in 1972. The sector departments were responsible for improving and maintaining the quality of Bank lending and related operations through activities such as: sector policy and guideline development; support and review of operations; recruitment assistance; staff development and training; and liaison with external organizations. Although some departments like the industry sector initially had operational responsibility to identify, prepare, appraise, and supervise projects until a Bank-wide 1987 reorganization, sector departments were generally not responsible for leading project lending operations and member country relations. The Bank's projects and member country relations were the responsibility of Regional Vice Presidencies (RVPs). See the related units of description note below for the location of records relating to World Bank operations and the RVPs.

The Bank's industry sector work began in the Economic Department (createdApril 19, 1948 to September 1952) and the Technical Operations Department (TOD) (September 1952 to January 18, 1965). These departments had similar responsibilities for operational and sector work, providing expertise and assistance for projects and studies. TOD was organized functionally, with sub-units for industry, agriculture, power, transportation and so on. The Bank's industry sector included both manufacturing and mining.

The Bank's first loan supporting industry was a component in the Bank's first loan to France for reconstruction in May 1947. The loan funded the modernization of the steel industry including importing equipment and coal mining equipment. Subsequent industry sector loans in the late 1940s and 1950s were strictly for importing or constructing manufacturing machinery and parts and mining equipment to increase a plants' production output. The Bank did not lend for industrial development projects in the public sector until the late 1960s. Loans were either provided to large private enterprises through the Bank's sister organization, the International Finance Corporation (IFC, established in 1956), to intermediary institutions such as development banks and development finance companies (DFCs) for smaller and medium enterprises, or program loans for financing industrial imports.

The first standalone mining industry projects, Lota Coal Mine Modernization, P006582 and Schwager Coal Mine Modernization, P006583 were approved in July 1957, financing the development of mining facilities in Chile that would reduce costs of production.

1965 - 1972

A reorganization of TOD created the Projects Department (PRJ) on January 18, 1965. PRJ was responsible for the identification, appraisal, and supervision of projects, as well as policy formulation, research, and advice in support of the operational activities of the area departments. A separate industry sector unit, Industry Division (PRJIN), was first articulated in the Bank's organizational chart as a lower division of PRJ. Other divisions subordinate to PRJ were: Agriculture Division (PRJAG); Education Division (PRJED); Transportation Division (PRJTP); and Public Utilities Division (PRJPU). The Industry Division was transferred to IFC on April 19, 1965, and an IFC Engineering Department (FEN) was created, bringing together most Bank division staff connected with industry to join IFC engineers to support IFC projects for industrial enterprises in the private sector, and provide technical advice to the Bank on state-owned industrial projects, as few as they were at that time.

In late 1968, Bank Group President McNamara implemented a significant change in the Bank's lending policies to permit lending to publicly controlled industrial enterprises and DFCs. A year later, the new policy resulted in the transfer of industrial project activities from IFC back to the Bank, which hadbeen providing most of the Bank Group's financing for DFCs. The Bank's Industrial Projects Department (NDP) was created on October 2, 1969, and Hans Fuchs, who previously led the IFC Engineering Department, was appointed director. The department was responsible for expanding Bank lending in the industrial sector and advising developing countries on how to best accelerate their industrial growth. At the time of its creation, NDP had two divisions based on geographical regions: Division I - Asia and Latin America (NDPD1) and Division II - Africa, Europe and Middle East (NDPD2). In February 1972, a third division was created, and all divisions were reorganized along functional lines. The new divisions were: Division I - Economic and Sectoral (NDPD1); Division II - Projects, Mining and Mechanical (NDPD2) and Division III - Projects, Chemical (NDPD3).

In April 1972, the Industry Sector working paper was published, announcing a projected increase in direct financing of manufacturing projects to government owned or controlled companies. The paper also announced the Bank's move into new fields of activity, particularly for "non-industrial" countries: assisting small-scale industry; supporting extension services; and giving technical advice on sector priorities and project identification. The Bank would also plan to concentrate financing to "semi-industrialized" and "industrializing" countries where the infrastructure was sufficiently developed, and the manufacturing sector was sizeable enough to produce external economies. The report outlined the contributions that industrialization could make to economic development, but cautioned that industrialization, especially a concentration on heavy industry, by itself is insufficient, in that in some cases it could aggravate the problem of unemployment by penalizing the farmer, redistributing incomes in favor of manufacturing, and encouraging a mass departure from rural to urban areas.

1972 - 1986

In the October 1972 Bank-wide reorganization, most of the Projects Department staff were dispersed to regional projects departments in newly established Regional Vice Presidencies (RVPs) to more effectively fuse country knowledge and sector skills. With the bulk of operational project work responsibility transferred to the RVPs, this left five departments in the new Central Projects Staff (CPS), the departments of Education, Transportation, Public Utilities, Development Finance Companies, Urban Projects, with a core staff of advisors responsible for operational and development policy, research, operational support and quality control of project and sector work. However, some sectors were too small to decentralize to the Regions and continued to have full responsibility for all operational lending services to the RVPs in addition to the aforementioned activities. These units, known as the central operating project departments (COPDs) of CPS initially included NDP (still the Industrial Projects Department), Population, Tourism, African Development Finance Companies, and Agriculture. NDP was responsible for identifying, preparing, appraising, and supervising projects involving direct loans or credits to large-scale industrial enterprises. Lending to medium and small industries was undertaken through local financial intermediaries and managed by the Industrial Development and Finance Divisions in the regional offices. NDP retained its previous divisions. In July 1974, a Fertilizer Unit (NDPFU) was established in the department to coordinate planning of the Bank's technical and financial assistance for the improvement of supply and use of fertilizer in developing countries and for liaison with related external organizations.

In July 1977, the Bank's Board of Executive Directors approved an expansion of lending for developing fuel and non-fuel mineral resources in developing countries. A detailed five-year program for non-fuel minerals was formulated, identifying priorities for lending and sector work. To implement this program, a Mining and Non-Ferrous Metals Division (IPDD1) was created within the department. This division was focused on hard-rock mining and processing including coal, lignite, and oil shale. The department was given a new acronym, IPD, and by mid-1978, its other divisions were renamed accordingly: Fertilizer, Refining and Other Chemical Industries (IPDD2); Mechanical and Other Industries (IPDD3); Wood Processing, Textiles and Other Industries (IPDD4); and Fertilizer Unit (IPDFU).

During the 1970s and 1980s, the number of large-scale industry projects assisted by IPD increased substantially. Among the most common were manufacturing industry loans for fertilizer, steel, or forest products (pulp and paper) projects; mining of fuel minerals (coal, lignite) and non-fuel minerals (iron ore, coal, phosphate, lignite); and lending for exploration and engineering as prerequisites for mining activities.

In March 1982, the Central Projects Staff (CPS) was restructured into the new Operations Policy (OPS). Within the OPS complex, a vice presidency for Energy and Industry Staff (EIS) was established. EIS combined the two closely related sectors for which private sources of financing were of greater importance. The Energy Department (EGY) and a newly created Industry Department (IND) were led by separate directors that reported to the Office of the Vice President, Energy and Industry (EISVP). Senior Vice President, Operations Policy (SVPOP) Ernest Sternserved as acting vice president, EISVP until fall 1983 with the appointment of Jean-Loup Dherse. Hans Fuch continued as director of IND throughout this period.

IND absorbed the functions of the previous IPD and the Industrial Development and Finance Department (IDF), as well as the Telecommunications Division (TWTTL) of the former Transportation, Water, and Telecommunications Department (TWT). Some staff from the Office of the Vice President, Development Policy (VPD) was also transferred to IND to strengthen its policy and research functions. IND continued to operate as a central operating projects department (COPD), providing the full operational tasks of identifying, preparing, appraising and supervising projects in the industrial sector and telecommunications. Additionally, like other sector departments, it was also responsible for policy formulation and research of industrial and financial sector policy, and sector work.

IDF, created in March 1977 under CPS and formed from the previous Development Finance Companies Department (DFC, 1972 - 1977), had led the Bank's efforts in refocusing industrial economic and sector work on the problems of creating employment and income opportunities in member countries. Its previous responsibilities, now transferred to IND, included: industrial sector work and policy; lending to DFCs; all lending activities and operations to foster the development of small-scale enterprises; creating employment and income opportunities for the non-farming poor; and coordinationof the Bank's cooperative program with the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO).

At the time of its creation in 1982, IND was comprised of the following divisions: Mining and Non-Ferrous Metals (INDD1); Fertilizer, Refining and Other Chemical Industries (INDD2); Construction Materials and Mechanical Industries (INDD3); Wood Processing, Textiles and Other Industries (INDD4); Telecommunications, (INDD5); Policy Analysis Division (INDPA); and Operations Country Support Division (INDSU). The Fertilizer Unit (INDFU) was terminated later in July 1982, its functions transferred to INDD2 and a fertilizer adviser in the Director's Front Office (INDDR). By October 1982, INDPA and INDSU were merged into the Industrial Strategy and Policy Division (INDSP). A small unit, the Incentives and Comparative Advantage (INCA) unit, that was initially established as an applied research project by the Research Committee within IDF was incorporated into INDSP at this time. INCA's responsibilities were to:undertake applied research, including for the development of operational tools; support policy related studies; provide technical assistance and support to the regional operating units of the Bank; and work with the Regions, research institutions or other organizations in member countries to build local capabilities to undertake INCA analysis..

In July 1983, the responsibilities for divisions 3, 4, and 5 were redefined. Project and sector work on construction materials, mechanical, wood processing, and textiles industries were consolidated into Division 3 - Manufacturing Industries and INDD5 became Division 4 - Telecommunications, Electronics and New Technology (INDD4). In addition, two new units were created, one for Energy Conservation (INDEC) which had responsibility for developing a project pipeline in this emerging field, and one for Financial Development (INDFD) which was created in the context of the 1980s debt crisis and turmoil in developing nations' financial sectors and institutions. INDFD carried out policy, research, and review work concerning the financial sector, and coordinated work with financial intermediaries with other sectors, and with other Bank units, IFC, and International Monetary Fund (IMF).

On July 1, 1984, an Industrial Restructuring Unit (INDRE) was established. By January 1985, INDRE and INDEC were merged into the Industrial Restructuring and Efficiency Unit (INDRE) because both units had developed a common multi-industry focus which would make combining their resources more efficient. The Word Processing Unit (INDWP) was also created at this time.

On July 1, 1985, INDRE and INDFD were both upgraded from units to divisions and by December 1985, INDRE's name was shortened to Industrial Restructuring Division. At the start of the following fiscal year, Division 2 - Fertilizer, Refining and Other Chemicals was changed to Fertilizer and Chemical Industries (INDD2).

By 1986, IND consisted of seven divisions. The Mining and Non-Ferrous Materials (INDD1), Fertilizer and Chemical Industries (INDD2), Manufacturing Industries (INDD3), and Telecommunications, Electronics, and New Technology Development (INDD4) divisions were managed by the assistant director, operations while an assistant director, policy presided over the following divisions: Industrial Strategy and Policy (INDSP); Financial Development (INDFD) and Industrial Restructuring (INDRE).

1987 - 1996

On July 1, 1987, a Bank-wide reorganization resulted in the termination of almost all organizationalunits. The industry and mining sectors were relocated into the newly created Sector Policy and Research Vice Presidency (PRE, then PRS). As a result of the reorganization, PRE had no responsibility for managing operational activities. The vice presidency focused on operational support, the formulation of Bank-wide sector policies, and overseeing the ex post evaluation of Bank-wide sector work and lending. The units within the vice presidency concentrated on policy creation and analysis, support for operations, and sectoral research for emerging priority areas of the Bank such as the environment, women in development, and private sector development. Within the PRE Vice Presidency, the energy and industry sectors were merged into the Industry and Energy Department (IEN), led by Director Anthony Churchill. The operational functions of the previous IND were transferred to the regional Technical and Country Departments. The staff and functions of INDFD were transferred to the Financial Policy and Systems Division located in the Country Economics Department (CECFP) of the Development Economics Vice Presidency (DEC).

IEN divisions included: Industry Development (IENIN); Energy Development (IENED); and Energy Strategy, Management and Assessment (IENES).

On December 1, 1991, as part of President Lewis Preston's first reorganization, which abolished all Senior Vice Presidencies, the new Sector and Operations Vice Presidency (OSP) was created, and adopted functions previously supervised by senior vice presidents.

Following the 1991 reorganization, the Industry and Energy Department maintained two previously created divisions, Industry Development (IENIN) and Energy Development (IENED).

The department was responsible for:

• formulating policies in the energy and industry sectors;

• developing research priorities and conducting background research necessary to support policy development;

• strengthening the Bank's intellectual leadership in the sector;

• providing advice to the regions forthe design of country strategies and sector operations;

• disseminating research results;

• conducting an annual review of Bank operations in the sector;

• developing and maintaining contact with the external community on industry and energy matters.

At some point in 1992, an Industry Sector Board was formed to: discuss issues of concern to the sector and raise attention to management as necessary; and serve as a network for better communications among staff across the Bank Group working inthe sector. Sector Board membership consisted of senior staff including regional advisers, division chiefs including IEN, and representatives from the Operations Evaluation Department (OED) and IFC.

On January 1, 1992, as part of a larger initiative to align the Bank's organization with the priority areas of its poverty reduction effort, the Sector and Operations Policy Vice Presidency was terminated. All research activities were removed from the departments in the Central Vice Presidencies, includingIEN, and were consolidated under the Chief Economist and Vice President for Development Economics (DECVP). The Policy Research Department (PRD) under DECVP became the principal research arm of the Bank; IEN was no longer responsible for energy or industry sector research.

OSP was replaced by three new thematic vice presidencies: Human Resources Development and Operations Policy (HRO), Finance and Private Sector Development (FPD); and Environmentally Sustainable Development (ESD). At the time of its establishment FPD had three subordinate departments:

Financial Sector Development Department (FSD);

Private Sector Development Department (PSD); and

Industry and Energy Department (IEN).

Each Sector Department was responsible for the following:

• prepare policies, guidelines, standards, handbooks and analytical tools relevant to the sector;

• identify, codify and disseminate best practices and lessons of experience, and evaluate weaknesses;

• provide advice to the regions as needed;

• monitor and track work in the sectors assigned to identify generic issues and identify, evaluate and influence trends and patterns;

• perform surveys of experience and practice within the Bank and elsewhere, and develop innovative approaches;

• participate in Bank-wide efforts to assess skill requirements, and to upgrade skills through recruitment, training, orientation, seminars, newsletters, etc.;

• represent the Bank to external communities of interest;

• maintain an awareness of relevant external practices and viewpoints.

The reorganization created five divisions within IEN: Power Development, Efficiency and Household Fuels (IENDP); Energy Policy and Strategy (IENEP); Oil and Gas (IENOG); Industry and Mining (IENIM); and Telecommunications and Informatics (IENTI). IENIM was responsible for mineral resource and industrial development issues including assisting client countries to attract private mining investment based on sound legal and fiscal frameworks, and to develop a modern and environmentally sustainable mining industry. Other assistance strategies emphasized development of modern geological databases, privatization of state mining enterprises, and regularization of small-scale and artisanal mining. IENTI was the technical arm of the Bank responsible for issues related to information infrastructure, which entailed: assisting countries with reforms to promote private investment; ensuring application of infrastructure such as distance education or health service delivery; providing connectivity to the poor, particularly rural and peri-urban areas; and technology for government service. Responsibilities of the energy sector units are outlined in the Energy Sector fonds.

Key initiatives of the industry units in the early to mid-1990s included the policy paper, Fundamental Issues and Policy Approaches in Industrial Restructuring published in 1992 and the jointly sponsored Conference on Development, Environment and Mining held in Washington, DC in June 1994. The conference, organized in partnership with the International Council on Metals and the Environment, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), was organized to discuss how mining could contribute to economic development and be compatible with environmentally sustainable development inunison. Two years later, in June 1996, a Bank roundtable on the Clean Coal Initiative for industry and governments was hosted by IENIM. The roundtable concluded with the aim of building a global partnership with client countries and public and private stakeholders to support and stimulate reforms to improve the efficiency and environmental performance of coal by studying the coal-energy chain in coal-dominant countries and mechanisms for financing.

1997 - 2014

Three years later, in 1997, the thematic Vice Presidencies were reorganized by World Bank Group President James D. Wolfensohn to strike a better balance between country focus and sectoral excellence. To facilitate sharing of expertise and knowledge, the Bank established Networks that linked Bank-wide communities of staff working in the same field across organizational boundaries and with external partners. The networks formed a virtual overlay on the existing Bank organization and were intended to link staff working in the same sectors throughout the Bank, whether the staff was in the Regions, in the Central Vice Presidencies' Sectoral Departments, or other vice presidencies.

Each of the three thematic Central Vice Presidencies were transformed into the central units, or anchors, of each Network and were embodied in the existing Sector Departments. On a Bank-wide basis, sector specialists were grouped into regional sector units or into central Sector Departments which worked with country departments in a matrix relationship.

Each Network Anchor had a Network Council to oversee the entire network, and sector boards covering the individual sectors within a network. The Network Council was composed of the top network managers from each region and was responsible for setting the overall agenda for the network and for promoting the effective deployment of skills across network units. Sector Boards brought together the sector leaders from each region and from the Central Vice Presidencies. Staff from the central Sector Departments could become part of the regional operational teams when their sectoral expertise was required. The work programs of network staff focused on:

• global knowledge - putting the best development knowledge in the hands of Bank task teams; ensuring that the knowledge base was accessible to external clients; and contributing to the growth of the knowledge base;

• enhanced skills - developing and providing content to training courses; establishing professional and technical standards for professional development;

• shared strategies - assisting regional and central units to develop a common sector agenda and ensuring that skills are effectively deployed across the entire network. Network leadership assumed responsibility for global programs, sector strategy development and evaluation, strategic partnerships, and learning and dissemination;

• best teams and best practices - improving the Bank's flexibility and mobility by building stronger task teams and delivering higher quality products;

• institutional initiatives - providing substantial support for new Bank-wide initiatives, such as Social Development, Rural Development, Financial Sector, Anti-corruption, Human Resources, and Knowledge Partnerships.

The next five years following the Bank-wide 1997 reorganization were marked by a series of Bank Group organizational changes and transfers of certain sectors and subsectors. As part of the 1997 reorganization, FPD was terminated and replaced with the Finance, Private Sector Development and Infrastructure Network (FPSI). The FSD, PSD and IEN departments were transferred to FPSI, joining the new Transportation, Water, and Urban Development Department (TWU). James Bond was appointed IEN director and chair of the Energy and Mining Sector Board. By January 1998, IEN units were each led by a manager and included: Energy (IENDP), Industry and Mining (IENIM), Oil and Gas (IENOG), and Telecommunications and Informatics (IENTI). The ESMAP and InfoDev programs were also functional responsibilities of IEN, and each ledby a manager. IEN's name changed to Energy, Mining and Telecommunications Department in late 1997 or early 1998 but its acronym did not change to EMT until several months later.

In early 1999, President Wolfensohn announced the need for greater integration of Bank operations and its IFC affiliate, which specialized in private sector development advisory and investment services. As a result, in February 1999, FPSI was terminated in place of the joint World Bank and IFC Private Sector Development and Infrastructure Development Vice Presidency (PSIVP). Functions and staff from PSD, EMT, and TWU departments of FPSI were transferred to the new PSIVP and the Project Finance and Guarantees Department (PFG) was also mapped in to PSIVP. EMT industry and mining functions were organized into the Industry and Mining Unit (EMTIM) alongside the Energy Unit (EMTEG), Oil and Gas Unit (EMTOG), Telecommunications and Informatics (EMTTI), Information for Development Administration (EMTIN), and ESMAP (EMTES), all reporting to the Office of the Director (EMTDR).

In January 2000, to improve the effectiveness of private sector development work, IFC and Bank departments were combined in selected global industry product groups. PSD and parts of EMT were mapped into the newly established product groups, or joint departments, that integrated Bank and IFC business activities. For the first time since 1982, the sectors of industry, mining, and telecommunications and informatics that had remained together under the same department or division, became separate departments. The joint Bank/IFC departments reported to both PSIVP and IFC Vice President, Operations and included the following units: Private Sector Advisory Services (PSAS); Small and Medium Enterprise Department (SME); the Oil, Gas, and Chemicals Department (COC); the Global Information and Communications Technologies Department (CIT); and the Mining Department (CMN).

In 2002, CMN was merged with COC to form the new Oil, Gas, Mining, and Chemicals Department (COC) inPSIVP as an efficiency and cost-saving measure. COC continued to be led by Director Rashad-Rudolf Kaldany under the previous reporting structure. COC comprised the following six units each headed by a manager: IFC Oil and Gas Division (COCD1); Investment Division (IFC Mining, [COCIN]); IFC Chemicals Division (COCD2); Portfolio and Credit Review Division (COCCP); Policy Division, IBRD Oil and Gas (COCPO); and Policy Division, IBRD Industry and Mining (COCPD). In May 2003, a subsequent reorganization terminated PSIVP and split its functions and staff among the new joint IFC and World Bank Private Sector Development Vice Presidency (PSDVP) and the Bank's Infrastructure Network (INF). COC, CIT, EWD, and TUD were mapped into the Bank's INF Network. By 2005, COC units were: Mining (COCIN); Chemicals (COCD2); Portfolio and Credit Review (COCCP); and Policy Division, IBRD Oil, Gas and Mining (COCPO).

In the early 2000s, the joint Bank Group units participated in a major initiative concerning extractive industries. In June 2000, at the Annual Meeting in Prague, President Wolfensohn responded to criticism from the nongovernmental community about Bank Group involvement in extractive industries with a pledge to review the Bank Group's role in this sector. The Extractive Industries Review (EIR) was initiated in July 2001 with the appointment of Dr. Emil Salim, former minister of the Environment for Indonesia, to lead the review. EIR examined Bank Group activities in the oil, gas, and mining sector, collaboration between sister organizations, and whether the Bank Group's involvement in the extractive industries was consistent with its goals of alleviating poverty through sustainable development. Activities of the review included multi-stakeholder consultations across broad groups worldwide, regional workshops, six research projects, project site visits, information consultations, and attendance at conferences. The final report of the review was published in December 2003 under the title, "Striking A Better Balance: The World Bank Group and Extractive Industries". The report reaffirmed the mandate for Bank Group activities in these sectors with recommended measures to implement and enhanced focus on community development. As the EIR report was being prepared, the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), was launched in 2003. A year later, an EITI multi-donor trust fund was set up to help countries aligntheir systems with the requirements of EITI and was managed by COC.

In June 2006, President Wolfowitz announced the consolidation of the former ESSD and INF Vice Presidencies into the Sustainable Development Network (SDN) with the objective of mainstreaming environmental issues, improving synergies, better integrating core operations, and strengthening focus on sustainability. SDN was operational on January 1, 2007. The aim of the network integration in relation to the energy sector was to:

• treat water issues more broadly by building water resource management strategies that cover agriculture, rural and urban dimensions, while linking these with energy and environment concerns;

• integrate more systematically rural development approaches in energy, transport, or ICT projects;

• develop a holistic approach to climate change mitigation and adaptation, expanding the work on the clean energy investment agenda.

At this time, energy and water functions were combined with the transport sector to form the Energy, Transport and Water Department (ETW) in the new SDN. The energy units from the previous reorganization remained in ETW and only reflected a change in acronym: Energy Unit (ETWEN) and ESMAP (ETWES). COC was also moved to SDN. By September 2008, the four units under COC were: Chemicals, and Oil and Gas (COCD2); Mining (COCIN); Policy and Reform, Oil, Gas and Mining (COCPO); and Portfolio and Credit Review (COCCP).

In September 2010, restructuring of SDN separated the energy function from transport and water. SDN departments were as follows: Sustainable Energy (SEG); Transport, Water, and Information and Communication Technologies (TWI); Environment Department (ENV); Agricultural and Rural Development Department (ARD); Concessional and Sub-National Finance (CSF); Finance, Economics and Urban Development (FEU); and Social Development (SDV);

SEG was led by Director Subramaniam V. (Vijay) Iyer, appointed in 2011. The priorities of the director were to: (i) provide strategic leadershipand direction for the Bank Group's newly integrated sustainable energy and mining practice; (ii) provide leadership for the World Bank Group's Sustainable Energy Strategy, which will support access to clean, efficient, reliable and affordable energy; and (iii) in the context of the emerging global Bank, enhance the alignment of the SDN network to support the green growth and knowledge agenda, skills and mobility of staff and the development of a strong energy and mining practice, well integrated with othersectors. Subordinate units of SEG included: Energy Unit (SEGEN), Oil, Gas, Mining Division (SEGOM), ESMAP (SEGES), and Extractive Industries (SEGEI). SEGOM was reorganized from the former COCPO, no longer a formal joint Bank/IFC unit, although "dotted line" links in the organization chart remained with the IFC oil and mining group.

A key publication of SEGOM during this period was a study titled "Increasing Local Procurement by the Mining Industry in West Africa". The study, published in February 2012, established that raising the share of local procurement by mining companies would spread the benefits of mining more evenly across a country's economy, creating jobs and stimulating the sustainable development of local enterprises.

2014

On July 1, 2014, a Bank-wide reorganization introduced by President Jim Yong Kim restructured the Bank into fourteen Global Practices (GPs) and five Cross-Cutting Solution Areas (CCSAs). Sector staff from the RVPs were removed and placed in the GPs or CCSAs. The GPs were responsible for each of the major thematic areas that the Bank supports through projects. Each GP also functions as a vertical pillar of technical expertise. Responsibilities of the GP include:

• defining the strategic direction and the Bank's work in the energy and extractives sectors;

• providing reliable electricity to the unserved and inadequately served people of the world;

• developing and deploying expertise globally;

*delivering comprehensive solutions to client countries through environmentally and socially sustainable approaches;

• capturing and leveraging knowledge in the energy and extractives industry.

SEG, established from the 2010 restructuring, now became Energy and Extractives Global Practice or EEX GP (GEEDR) reporting to the Sustainable Development Practice Group Vice Presidency (GGSVP), along with the GPs of Agriculture, Environment and Natural Resources, Social, Urban, Rural and Resilience, and Transport and ICT.

Anita M. George was appointed senior director, EEX GP and Charles M. Feinstein, director. The senior director continued to lead the Sector Board. EEX GP practice managers reporting to the director were responsible for the following units divided into Energy GP Africa 1 (GEE01), Energy GP East Asia and the Pacific (GEE02), Energy GP Europe and Central Asia (GEE03), Energy GP Latin America and Caribbean (GEE04), Energy GP MNA (GEE05), Energy GP South Asia (GEE06), GP Africa 2 (GEE07), Energy and Extractives Department 1 (GEED1), Energy and Extractives Department 2 (GEED2), Energy and Extractives, and Energy Sector Management Assistance (GEEES).

Past sector directors or leaders:

1969 - 1983 Hans Fuchs (director, NDP later IPD, IND)

1983 - 1984 Chauncey F. Dewey (acting)

1984 - 1987 Amnon Golan (director, IND)

1987 - 1993 Anthony A. Churchill (director, IEN)

1993 - 1997 Richard D. Stern (director, IEN)

1997 - 2000 James P. Bond (director, IEN later EMT)

2011 - 2014 Subramaniam V. (Vijay) Iyer (director, SEG)

2014 - 2016 Anita M. George (senior director, EEX GP)

2016 - 2020 Riccardo Puliti (senior director, EEX GP)

Joint IFC/World Bank Department directors:

2000 - 2002 James Bond, director, Mining Department (CMN)

2002 - 2007 Rashad-Rudolf Kaldany, director Oil, Gas, Mining and Chemicals Department (COC)

2007 - 2010 Somit Varma, director COC

Benjamin B. King joined the World Bank in 1947 as an economist. During his long career he served in various parts of the Bank: the Economics Department (1947-1949, 1950-1952, 1965-1967), Office of the President (1949-1950), Europe, Africa & Australasia Department (1952-1957), Economic Development Institute (1957-1962), South Asia and Middle East Department (1962-1965), South Asia Department (1967-1970), Special Projects Department (1970-71), Economics Program Department (1971-1972), and Development Policy Staff (1974-1978). He completed his career as the Director, Development Economics Department, 1978-1981. From 1972-1974 King was seconded from the World Bank to serve as an adviser to the Canadian International Development Agency.

Dr. Debrework Zewdie, an Ethiopian national, joined the World Bank in 1994 where she served in various positions for fifteen years. Prior to joining the Bank, Zewdie was the deputy regional director of the Africa Region for the AIDS Control and Prevention project (AIDSCAP) of Family Health International in Nairobi, Kenya. Previously, Zewdie held several public health and managerial positions focusing on reproductive health and HIV/AIDS prevention and mitigation, including head of the Immunohematology Department at the National Research Institute of Health (NRIH) in Addis Ababa, deputy director at NRIH, and later acting director. She also established and headed the Referral Laboratory for AIDS in Addis Ababa, served as program manager of Ethiopia's AIDS/STD Prevention and Control Program, and taught immunology to medical students at Addis Ababa University. She received her PhD in immunology from the University of London in 1982.

Zewdie joined the Bank in 1994 as population, health, and nutrition specialistin the department of Population, Health, and Nutrition (PHN) and was promoted to senior PHN specialist in the newly formed Human Development Department. In mid-1997, she moved to the Africa Regional Vice Presidency to become the lead population and reproductive health specialist for the Global HIV/AIDS Coordinator team (AFTH1), serving until June 1999.

From 1999 to 2001, she was the founder and manager of the AIDS Campaign Team for Africa (ACTAfrica, AFRHV) a unit responsible for developing and overseeing the Bank's Multi-Country HIV/AIDS Program (MAP) for Africa with its US$1 billion fund.

In late 2001, Zewdie was selected as adviser for the new Global HIV/AIDS Program, Human Development Network Vice Presidency (HDNVP), which began operations in January 2002 with a mandate to initiate and support the Bank's multi-sectoral response to the epidemic. The key functions of the unit were to: strengthen global learning and knowledge sharing on approaches and best practices to HIV/AIDS; work with partners of the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) to monitor and evaluate HIV/AIDS-related activities at the country level, such as the Multi-Country AIDS Programs (MAP); and support the region's operations. She was responsible for providing strategic direction for the program and coordinating resource mobilization efforts of the Bank's HIV/AIDS work with more than US$2 billion committed through grants, loans, and credits to national and regional programs. During this time, Zewdie led the formulation of the World Bank Group's global strategy on HIV/AIDS and the Global HIV/AIDS Program of Action. By 2003, the unit was restructured as the Global HIV/AIDS Program Team (HNDGA) under HDN with three other teams: Education Team (HDNED), Health, Nutrition Population (HDNHE) Team, and Social Protection Team (HDNSP). She was promoted to director in 2004.

In mid-2008, Zewdie was seconded to The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria in Geneva for one year. Following a brief return to her position as HDNGA director, Zewdie accepted the position of deputy executive director and chief operating officer for The Global Fund in 2010. Zewdie returned to the Bank in 2013 for one year to serve as senior adviser to President Kim's Special Envoy for the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), situated in HDNVP, then the Health, Nutrition, and Population Department Global Practice Director's Office (GHNDR) after the 2014 Bank-wide reorganization.

The Incentives and Comparative Advantage (INCA) Unit was constituted as a World Bank applied research project (RPO 672-44 "Establishment of an Experimental Unit for Work on Industrial Incentives and Comparative Advantages") and was approved by the Bank's Research Committee in August 1981. INCA began operations in September 1981 as a two-year experimental central support unit primarily funded by the Industrial Development Finance Department (IDF) and the Bank's Research Committee with contributions from theProductivity Division of the Development Research Department (DRDPR) and each of the regional operating departments. These sponsors considered the unit as an experiment in the integration of research into the Bank's operations, funded by the research budget.

Since the early 1970s, the Bank had been financing research projects (RPOs) involving the detailed analysis of protection and other incentives and empirical estimation of incentive and comparative advantage indicators. Bank staff involved in the research projects had also been providing advice and assistance to operational staff responsible for INCA-type studies for a considerable time. However, this support was informal, ad hoc, and uncoordinated. Member countries and the Bank's regional operating units increasingly regarded these studies as pertinent for policy reform and there was a demand for new studies, mainly in the context of structured adjustment lending (SALs) or industrial sector loans, as well as a demand for technical assistance for protection and other aspects of industrial policy. The INCA Unit was therefore created with the following objectives:

• undertake applied research, including on the development of operational tools;

• support policy related studies;

• provide technical assistance and support to operating units of the Bank (notably the regional industrial development and finance operating units and program units);

• work with research or other organizations in member countries to build local capabilities to undertake INCA analysis on a permanent basis, in assistance with the Regions.

Economist Garry Pursell was appointed to lead the INCA Unit in August 1981 which consisted of a small staff of research assistants and full-time consultants. The INCA Unit was originally situated within IDF until October 1982 when IDF was absorbed by the newly established Industry Department (IND). The unit was subsequently incorporated into the department's Strategy and Policy Division (INDSP) and reported to the INDSP division chief. Theapplied research efforts of the unit resulted in multiple products for supporting empirical INCA studies including the development of computer software and programs for data processing, a manual on INCA studies for country officials and researchers, methodological work, INCA consultant rosters, information files (including sources of information for international price data) and bibliographies of INCA and INDSP effective protection studies.

Funding for the unit was extended to December 1984 and by then, the unit had completed most of its work as outlined in a Project Completion Report (PCR) submitted in March 1985. INDSP began to support INCA functions in January 1985 and created a working group that met weekly; however, it was gradually phased out a short time later. The Industry Department and INDSP were terminated with most organizational units in the 1987 Bank-wide reorganization. The INCA analysis and support function would not be expanded or established on a permanent basis but would still be carried under the Industry Development Division, Industry and Energy Department (IENIN) under the Policy, Planning and Research Vice Presidency (PRE).

Johannes F. Linn was born on October 22, 1945 near Munich, Germany. He studied law at the Free University in Berlin before receiving a Bachelor of Arts in philosophy, politics, and economics from Oxford University in 1968 and a PhD in economics from Cornell University in 1972.

Linn joined the World Bank on January 2, 1973 as a Young Professional. During his first nine years of employment at the Bank, he was an economist in the Urban and Regional Economics Division in the Economics Department (ECDRB) and its successor the Development Economics Department (DEDRB) of the Development Policy Vice Presidency (DPS), the Bank's research unit. During this time he focused on issues of urban development policy. In 1978 Linn spent six months as a visiting researcher at the University of Munster.

In 1981, Linn moved to the operations side of the Bank when he was named Senior Economist in the East Asia and Pacific Vice Presidency's (AENVP) Division A (AEADA), which was responsible for Democratic Kampuchea, Lao People'sDemocratic Republic (PDR), Mekong Committee, Thailand, Vietnam, and liaison with the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP). In 1984 he was named a Senior Economist in the AENVP's Country Programs Department's Office of the Director (AEADR). Following the 1987 Bank-wide reorganization that combined the AENVP and the South Asia Vice Presidency (ASNVP) into a single Asia Regional Vice Presidency (ASI), Linn became the Lead Economist in the Country Department responsible for Burma, Democratic Republic of Kampuchea, Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Mekong Committee, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam (AS2).

In 1987, Linn was named Staff Director of the World Development Report 1988 (WDR). The WDR focused on public finance policies for development and reviewed trends in this sector in the world economy. He began this work within ASI but appears to have given up many of his responsibilities as Senior Chief Economist of the Region in order to focus on the WDR. In 1988 Linn returned to the research arm of the Bank when he was named Senior Economic Advisor in the Development Economics Vice Presidency (DECVP). He subsequently served as Director of DECVP's International Economics Department (IEC, 1989-1990), which focused on international finance, and trade and, between 1990 and 1991, Director of DECVP's Country Economics Department (CEC), which led country development policy design and analysis activities.

In December of 1991 Linn succeeded Joseph Wood as Vice President of the Financial Policy and Risk Management Vice Presidency (FPRVP) that contained the Risk Management and Financial Policy Department (FRS) and the Resource Mobilization Department (FRM). During this time Linn oversaw various finance-related functions including: financial policy and management; IBRD capital resource mobilization; and IDA replenishment. Linn served in this position for five years.

In 1996 Linn was named Regional Vice President of the Europe and Central Asia Vice Presidency (ECAVP).

Linn remained ECA Vice President until 2003 when he retired from the World Bank after thirty years. He frequently returned to the Bank as a consultant in subsequent years, most often for the ECAVP and the Independent Evaluation Group (IEG).

From 2003 to 2006 Linn was a Visiting Fellow at the Brookings Institution in Washington, DC and beginning in 2005 he served as an Executive Director for the Wolfensohn Center at Brookings. As of 2016 Linn is a Nonresident Senior Fellow in the Global Economy and Development Program at theBrookings Institution where his research focusses on aid effectiveness, global governance reform, and regional cooperation.

Jean-Francois Rischard was born in Luxembourg in 1948. He holds graduate and post-graduate degrees in economics from the University of Aix-Marseille, a law doctorate from the University of Luxembourg, and a Master's in Business Administration from Harvard Business School.

Rischard joined the World Bank Group in 1975 as a Young Professional. In 1976 he became a project officer in the Industrial Projects Department (NDP/IPD/IND) and served in this position for six years. Rischard was responsible for a widerange of activities, including: conducting pre-investment studies; and project appraisal; providing operational support throughout negotiation and administration of loans and credits including procurement and staffing; supervising projects; and monitoring developments in the sector.

In 1982 he joined the Financial Policy and Analysis Department (FPA) as a Senior Financial Analyst; he worked in both the Financial Analysis Division (FPAFA) and the Financial Studies Division (FPAFS). In 1984 he was named theDepartment's division chief for the new Financial Management and Analysis Division (FPAMA). Created in 1980 within the reorganized Finance complex, the FPA was responsible for a variety of activities, including: performing analytical work on Bank financial policies; supporting the Senior Vice President, Finance, in activities such as IDA replenishment negotiations and IBRD capital increases; producing long-term financial projections; assessing and managing financial risks; and providing operational supportin areas involving financial analysis.

Rischard left the Bank in 1986 to join the Wall Street firm of Drexel Burnham Lambert as a Senior Vice-President for International Fixed Income markets.

Rischard rejoined the World Bank Group in 1989 and was appointed Director of the Investment Department (INV) in the Treasury Vice President (TREVP); the unit was responsible for managing the liquid assets of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), International Finance Corporation (IFC), Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and the trust funds administered by the World Bank. The department included two divisions containing traders who invested in the securities of governments and their agencies, as well as in commercial banks. The department also contained a Systems Department responsible for facilitating the work of the department as well as a new department created by Rischard upon becoming Director that was responsible for developing new products and strategies in support of departmental trading.

In 1993, Rischard became Vice President for the Finance and Private Sector Development Vice Presidency (FPDVP) and oversaw the work of the Financial Sector Development (FSD), Private Sector Development (PSD), and Industry and Energy Sector departments (IEN). While serving as FPDVP, Rischard served as Chairman of the ESMAP Consultative Group, beginning in 1996. Following the Bank-wide reorganization of 1997-98, many of FPD's responsibilities were transferred to the Finance, Private Sector and Infrastructure Network (FPSI) which Rischard briefly led as Vice President of Head of Network.

In 1998, Rischard was named the new Vice President for Europe (EXTEU) which replaced the former Paris Office directorship. Rischard reported to the Vice President for External Affairs (EXT) and was responsible for representing the Bank in Europe and maintaining relationships with European country leaders, the European Union (EU), NGOs, and the private sector.

Rischard formally retired from the World Bank Group in 2005. Following his departure, he provided consultancy services to various units in the Bank, including the World Bank Institute (WBI). He has also been employed as a consultant to governments and companies around the world.

The Transportation, telecommunication, water, and urban development sub-fonds contains the records created by following departments: the Transportation, Water, and Telecommunications Department (TWT); the Urban Projects Department (URB); the Water and Urban Development Department (WUD); and the Transportation Department (TRP). TWT reported to the Vice President of Central Projects (CPSVP) from 1979 to 1982. URB also reported to CPSVP from 1976 to 1982. WUD and TRP subsequently reported to the Vice President of Operations Policy (OPSVP) with the termination of CPSVP in 1982.

Moeenuddin (Moeen) Ahmad Qureshi was born in Lahore, Punjab, British India (now Punjab, Pakistan) in 1930. He received a Bachelor's of Arts (Honours) and a Master of Arts in economics from the University of Punjab. Qureshi also received a Ph.D. in economics from Indiana University, Bloomington, IN.

Prior to joining the World Bank, Qureshi was employed by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in a variety of senior economic and operational adviser roles from 1958 to 1970. In 1970, Qureshi joined the WorldBank Group's International Finance Corporation (IFC), and served as an Economic Adviser until 1974. Qureshi's subsequent roles in the World Bank Group included:

• Vice President, IFC, 1974-1977;

• Executive Vice President, IFC, 1977-1979;

• Executive Vice President, IFC, and Vice President Finance, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), 1979-1980;

• Senior Vice President Finance, IBRD, and Executive Vice President, IFC, 1980-1981;

• Senior Vice President, Finance (SVPFI), 1981-1987; and

• Senior Vice President, Operations (SVPOP), 1987-1991.

In November 1991, Qureshi retired from the World Bank.

After his retirement from the World Bank, Qureshi co-founded the private equity firm Emerging Markets Partnership (now EMP Global LLC). From July to October 1993, Qureshi served as the interim Prime Minister of Pakistan. He then returned to the United States to continue as Chairman of EMP Global LLC. He died on November 22, 2016 at his home in Washington, D.C.

Born in Masvingo, Zimbabwe in 1942, Callisto Enias Madavo earned his Bachelor degree, Masters degree, and Ph. D. in economics from the University of Notre Dame in Indiana, U.S.A. Immediately upon completing his Ph. D. in 1969, he joined the World Bank as a Young Professional. Madavo initially worked in the Urbanization Department of the Special Projects Department: the unit responsible for large, inter-sectoral and multi-purpose projects. Madavo's subsequent positions in the World Bank Group included:

• Economist, Urban Projects Department (UBPD1), 1972-1973

• Economist, Transportation and Urban Projects Department (TRUD1), 1973-1976

• Deputy Division Chief/Division Chief, Urban Projects Department (URBD1, URBD4), 1976-1981

• Division Chief, East Asia and Pacific Regional Vice Presidency, Urban Division (EAPUR), 1981

• Assistant Director (Acting), Water Supply and Urban Development Department, Office of the Director (WUDDR), 1981-1983

• Division Chief, South Asia Regional Vice Presidency, Division A -Pakistan (ASADA), 1983-1986

• Assistant Director, East Asia and Pacific Regional Vice Presidency, Office of the Director (EAPDR), 1986-1987)

• Director, Africa Regional Vice Presidency, Africa Country Department 2 (AF2DR), 1987-1991

• Director, East Asia and Pacific Regional Vice Presidency, East Asia and Pacific Country Department 1 (EA1DR), 1991-1995

• Regional Vice President, Africa Regional Vice Presidency (AFRVP), 1996-2004

When Madavo was named Vice President of the Africa Region Vice Presidency(AFRVP) in 1996, it was as co-Vice President; Jean-Louis Sarbib was made the other Vice President of the Region. This arrangement effectively split the region into West Africa and Eastern and Southern Africa with one new VP responsible for each; Madavo oversaw the operations of Eastern and Southern Africa. This arrangement lasted until 2000 when Sarbib became the new Vice President of the Middle East and North Africa Region (MNA), leaving Madavo as the sole VP for the Africa Region until his retirement from the Bank in 2004.

After formally leaving the Bank, Madavo began teaching at Georgetown University as an adjunct professor in the School of Foreign Services. He also held roles of Special Adviser and Consultant at the World Bank from 2004 to 2007.

Madavo has consulted for a number of international organizations, including Global Fund, UNAIDS, and the African Development Bank. He has served on several working groups focused on development issues in Africa and has sat on boards of several international NGOs active in Africa.

Geoffrey Lamb, an Irish national, was born in Boksburg, South Africa in 1944. He earned a Bachelor's of Arts in economics and political science from Witwatersand University (Johannesburg, South Africa) in 1963. Soon after graduation, he was forced out of South Africa as an anti-apartheid political exile and obtained Irish citizenship soon thereafter. In 1966, he received a Master of Arts in African studies from the University of Sussex (Brighton, East Sussex, UK), and later obtained a Doctorate in Philosophy in political science from the University of Sussex in 1970.

Prior to joining the Bank, Lamb served as Deputy Director and Fellow at the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex. He also served as a Research Fellow for the School of African Studies and Asian Studies at the University of Sussex and the Royal Institute of Public Administration (RIPA) in London. He additionally served as Visiting Professor and Research Fellow at the University of London, the University of Nairobi, the University of Dar es Salaam, Addis Ababa University, and the University of the West Indies.

Geoffrey Lamb's employment at the World Bank began as an Economist for the Development Research Center (DRC) of the Development Policy Vice Presidency (VPD) from August 1980 to January 1982. He served in numerous roles thereafter, including:

• Economist for the Development Research Department (DRD) of the Economic and Research Vice Presidency (ERS), January 1982 to March 1982;

• Institutional Development Specialist for the Project Policy Department (PPD) of the Operations Policy Vice Presidency (OPS), April 1982 to May 1983;

• Public Sector Management Adviser for the Public Management Unit (PPDPS) of the Operations Policy Vice Presidency (OPS), October 1983 to May 1987;

• Adviser for the Strategic Planning Division (SPRSP) of the Strategic Planning and Review Department (SPR), July 1987 to May 1990;

• Adviser for the Policy Development Unit (PRDPD) of the Policy and Review Department (PRD), July 1990 to May 1991;

• Unit Chief for the Public Sector Management Unit (EMTPM) within the ECA/MENA Technical Department of the Europe and Central Asia Vice Presidency (ECA), December 1991 to May 1992;

• Manager for the Public Sector Management Unit (EMTPM) within the ECA/MENA Technical Department of the Europe and Central Asia Vice Presidency (ECA), January 1993 to May 1994;

• Resident Representative for the U.K. and Ireland External Affairs Department (EXTLD), July 1994 to June 1996;

• Senior Adviser for the External Affairs Vice Presidency (EXTVP), January 1997 to May 1997;

• Director for the Trust Fund and Co-financing Department (TFC) of the Resource Mobilization and Co-financing Vice Presidency (RMCVP), November 1997 to January 1999; and

• Director for the Resource Mobilization Department (FRM) of the Resource Mobilization and Co-financing (RMCVP), July 1999 to July 2002.

In 2003, Lamb was appointed the Vice President for Resource Mobilization and Co-financing (RMCVP), later renamed the Vice President for the Concessional Finance and Global Partnerships (CFPVP). In this role, he led international negotiations on the replenishment of funding for the International Development Association (IDA) and financing for the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI). He additionally led financing efforts for the International Finance Facility (IFF), the Advanced Market Commitments (AMCs), and the funding of the Global Environment Facility. Geoffrey Lamb retired from the World Bank in 2006.

Upon retirement, Lamb served on the Board of Directors for the International AIDS Vaccine Initiative (IAVI). He additionally joined the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation as a Senior Fellow for Global Development. He would go on to act in other roles in the Foundation, including: Managing Director for Public Policy, President of the Global Policy & Advocacy Division, and Chief Economic and Policy Advisor.

L. Peter Chatenay began his World Bank career in the Administration Department in July 1961 and served there until June 1969 when he transferred to the European Office. During the remainder of his Bank career, he served as the Deputy Special Representative for United Nations Organizations, 1971 - 1974; Senior International Relations Specialist, September 1974; an External Relations Adviser and later Senior Adviser in the International Relations Department, 1974 - 1983. He ended his World Bank career as the World Bank Representative to U.N. Organizations in Geneva, 1983 - 1985.

Gautam Subodh Kaji was born in Bombay, India on June 15, 1941. After receiving a Bachelor of Commerce from Sydenham College of Commerce and Economics at the University of Bombay in 1961, he attended the Wharton School of Finance, University of Pennsylvania, where he received a Master of Business Administration (MBA) in 1963. Prior to his employment with the World Bank, Kaji worked in the commercial banking sector for the Bank of India in India, Hong Kong, and the United Kingdom.

Kaji began his career atthe World Bank in 1968 as a Young Professional with assignments to the Western Africa Department (WAF) and to the International Finance Corporation (IFC). He would go on to serve in numerous positions throughout the Bank, including: Loan Officer in East Africa Department, Division B (EAFDB), 1969-1972; Loan Officer in Eastern Africa Vice Presidency, Country Programs Department 1, Division 1C (EA1DC), 1972-1973; Resident Representative in East Africa Vice Presidency Resident Mission - Sudan (EAFSD), 1973-1975; Senior Loan Officer in Europe, Middle East and North Africa Vice Presidency, Country Programs Department 1, Division 1C (EM1DC), 1975-1976; Division Chief in Europe, Middle East and North Africa Vice Presidency, Country Programs Department 1, Division 1C (EM1DC), 1976-1979; Management Policy Advisor in the Office of the Vice President, Administration, Organization, and Personnel Management (AOPVP), 1979-1980; Assistant Director, Management Development and then Director of the Personnel Management Department (PMDDR), 1980-1984; Director of the East Asia and Pacific Vice Presidency, Country Programs Department (AEADR), 1984-1987; and Director of Asia Vice Presidency, Country Department 2 (AS2DR), 1987-1991. In 1991, Kaji was named the Regional Vice President of the East Asia and Pacific Vice Presidency. In 1994, Kaji was made a Managing Director of the World Bank. As Managing Director, his tasks included: oversight responsibility of the institution's programs in Asia and Africa; chairing the Bank-wide Operations Committee (formerly the Loan Committee); co-chairing the Private Sector Development Group; and serving as a member of the Executive Committee.

Kaji left the World Bank in November 1997. He subsequently founded and served as Chairman of the Board of Directors of Centennial Group, Inc., a strategic advisory firm specializing in emerging market economies. Between 2007 and 2010, he served as a Director of Swarna Dwipa Co LLP, Singapore: a fund management company he co-founded. Kaji has also served on theBoard of Directors for numerous companies and charitable organizations.

Heywood Fleisig received bachelor's degrees in economics, philosophy, and political science from Swathmore College (Swathmore, Pennsylvania) in 1961. In 1963, Fleisig obtained a Master of Arts. in economics from Yale University. He later finished his PhD in economics at Yale University, specializing in international finance, trade, and economic history in 1969.

Prior to joining the World Bank, Fleisig served as a Coffee and Cocoa Analyst for Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner, and Smith in New York City from 1961 to 1962. He also taught economics as an Assistant Professor at Cornell University from 1966 to 1974. From 1974 to 1979, Fleisig served as an Economist for the Division of International Finance of the Federal Reserve Board. He later served as the Principal Analyst for the Fiscal Analysis Division of the Congressional Budget Office from 1979 to 1982.

In February 1982, Heywood Fleisig began his World Bank career as an Economist for the International Trade and Capital Flows Division of the Economics Program Department (EPDIT). Fleisig served in numerous roles at the World Bank, including: Senior Economist in the Global Analysis and Projections Division of the Economics Program Department (EDPGL), January 1984 to May 1986; Senior Economist in the East Asia and Pacific Vice Presidency (AENVP), December 1986 to May 1987; Principal Economist in the Asia Vice Presidency (ASIVP), July 1987 to May 1989; Principal Economist in the Country Operations Division, Asia-Country Department II (AS2CO), July 1989 to January 1990; Principal Economist in the Office of the Chief Economist, Latin America and Caribbean Region (LACCE), January 1990 to May 1993; and Adviser in the Private Sector Development Department (PSD), October 1993 to March 1996. Fleisig retired from the Bank in 1996, but later served as a consultant to the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and World Bank Investment Climate Department (CIC) in 2005 and 2007.

After his retirement from the Bank in 1996, Fleisig served as Research Director for the Centerfor the Economic Analysis of Law (CEAL) located in Washington, D.C.

Attila Karaosmanoglu was born in Manisa, Turkey in 1931. He attended the Faculty of Political Sciences at Ankara University and received a Bachelor of Arts in 1954. He later obtained a PhD in Economics from the University of Istanbul in 1956. During his postdoctoral studies, he participated as a visiting scholar at Harvard University and New York University, and later returned to Turkey to research and teach at Ankara University and the Middle East Technical University (Ankara, Turkey).

Upon graduation, Karaosmanoglu joined the State Planning Organization of Turkey, and later served as senior advisor to the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC, now OECD). In 1966, Karaosmanoglu's World Bank career began as a Senior Economist in the Europe and Middle East Department (EME). In 1971, he took leave from the World Bank to serve as Deputy Prime Minister for the cabinet of Turkish Prime Minister Nihat Erim. In 1973, he returned to the World Bank and served in numerous roles thereafter, including: Chief Economist in the Europe, Middle East, and North Africa Region (EMN) from 1973 to 1975; Director in the Development Policy Vice Presidency (VPD) from 1975 to 1979; Director in the Country Programs Department 1, Europe, Middle East, and North Africa Region (EM1DR) from 1979 to 1982; Vice President in the East Asia and Pacific Region (AENVP) from 1983 to 1987; Vice President in the Asia Region (ASIVP) from 1987 to 1991; and Managing Director (MDS) from 1991 to 1994. Karaosmanoglu retired from the World Bank in 1994.

Attila Karaosmanoglu passed away at the age of 81 in Istanbul, Turkey on November 10, 2013.

Syed Shahid Husain was born in the Bahir region of northeast India in 1931. In 1948, Husain emigrated with his family to Karachi, Pakistan. He studied at the University of Karachi and later finished his Bachelor of Science in economics at the London School of Economics on an unknown date. In 1961, Husain returned to Pakistan to serve as an Assistant District Officer in southern Pakistan, and later as the Deputy Secretary of Planning and Development in West Pakistan. In 1963, he completed a Master of Arts in Development Economics from Williams College (Williamstown, MA).

Husain's World Bank career first included a brief position as an Economist in the Economics Department (ECD) in 1963. In 1969, he returned to serve as the Division Chief for the Western Hemisphere Department (CAC) from 1969 to 1970. His career at the World Bank included numerous positions thereafter, including: Division Chief for the South America Department, Division E (SAMDE) from 1970 to 1971; Deputy Director for the Eastern Africa Department (EAFDR) from 1971 to 1972; Program Director for the Eastern Africa Department (EA2DR) from 1972 to 1974; Vice President for the Eastern Africa Region from (EANVP) from 1974 to 1976; Vice President for the East Asia and Pacific Region (AENVP) from 1977 to 1982; Vice President for the Operations Policy Staff (OPSVP) from 1983-1987; Chairman for the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) from 1984-1987; Vice President for the Latin America and the Caribbean Region (LACVP) from 1987 to 1994; and Vice President for Management and Personnel Services (MPSVP) from 1994 to 1995. Husain retired from the World Bank in 1995.

Prior to joining the World Bank, Ian Johnson, a British national, received a Bachelor of Science from the University of Wales and Masters' degrees from the University of Sussex and Harvard University. He subsequently spent five years in Bangladesh as a Program Officer for UNICEF working on rural development issues and one year as an economist in the British Government.

Johnson began his employment with the World Bank in 1980 as a Young Professional. In 1981 he joined the Europe, Middle East and North Africa (EMENA) Projects Department, Power and Energy Division (EMPPE) as an energy economist; he was subsequently promoted to Senior Economist. In 1987 he transferred to the EMENA Regional Office of the Vice President.

In April 1990, Johnson was named the Principal Sector Economist in the Policy, Research, and External Affairs Department (PRE). In April 1991, he became the Administrator of the newly created Global Environment Facility (GEF) where he played a key role in the structuring and first replenishment of the GEF. In September 1995, he was promoted to the position of Assistant Chief Executive Officer in the GEF Secretariat.

In 1997, Johnson was named the Senior Manager of the Environment Department and in 1998 he became the Vice President for Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development (ESSD). On July 7, 2000, Johnson succeeded Ismail Serageldin as the Chairman of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR).

Johnson left the World Bank in 2006. He has subsequently served in various positions: as an advisor to the government of Chile; a member of the Swedish Commission on Climate Change and Development; as senior advisor to Global Legislators Organisation for a Balanced Environment (GLOBE) and chair of its Ecosystems Services Panel; as consultant to a number of other international organizations; and, beginning in 2010, as Secretary General of the Club of Rome.

Vinod Dubey was educated at the Universities of Allahabad and Cambridge. Before coming to the World Bank, he was an Assistant Professor of Economics at the University of Allahabad (1953); an economist with the National Council of Applied Economic Research, New Delhi, India (1960); and Economic Affairs Officer, United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, Bangkok (1964). He began his World Bank career as an Economist in July 1965 and then served as an Economist in the Creditworthiness Studies Group, Economics Department (1969 - 1970); and as an Economist (1970 - 1971), a Senior Economist (1972 - 1975), and the Chief Economist (1975 - 1983) in the Europe, Middle East, and North Africa Regional Office. He was first a Senior Adviser (1984 - 1985) and then Director (1986 - 1987) in the Country Policy Department in the Office of Operations Policy. While in CPD, he also served as the first Liaison Officer to the Paris Club, 1984 - 1986. His last World Bank assignment was as the Director of the Economic Advisory Staff from June 1987 until his retirement at the end of November 1990.

Alexander Nowicki was employed by the Bank as an Economist between 1965 and 1990. During this time, Nowicki served in numerous Bank departments, including: the Economics Department, Industry Division (ECDIN, June 1969 to April 1971); South America Department (SAMDC, May 1971 to July 1972); Operations Evaluation Department (PABOE, then OED) as Senior Evaluation Officer (August 1972 to October 1975); Latin America and Caribbean, Country Programs (LC1DR, November 1975 to June 1982); South Asia Projects, Office of the Director (ASPDR, July 1982 to December 1986); and the Operations Evaluation Department, Division 2, Industry and Policy Review (OEDD2) as Division Chief (January 1987 to September 1990).

In March of 1982, at the request of the Vice President of External Relations (EXT), a task force composed of senior Bank officers was established to define the Economic Development Institute's (EDI) longer-term objectives and develop specific proposals for achieving them. The EDI task force was to review the objectives of EDI to identify the measures which need to be taken both in EDI and within the Bank to improve the services which the Institute is providing to Bank member countries. To accomplish this the task force conducted extensive consultations with the Bank and EDI staff, EDI Fellows, and governmental representatives from various regions.

The task force was chaired by Shahid Husain and L. Peter Chateney, who was then the EXT Advisor for the International Relations Department (IRD), was named the secretary of the task force. Later in 1982 Chateney was named the acting director of IRD, and Kreszentia Duer replaced him as secretary. The report of the task force was presented to the Managing Committee of the Bank in late 1982 and to the Board of Executive Directors in 1983.

Moeen Qureshi, the Senior Vice President Operations, set up the Task Force on Local Cost Financing under Adjustment Operations in May 1990 to review the appropriateness of financing local costs from the proceeds of adjustment loans and credits, and defining the limits on such financing where that was found appropriate. The Task Force contained representatives of the Legal Department, the Country Economics Department, the Central Operations Department, and the four Regional Offices.

Between the years 1993 and 1997, the Education and Social Policy Department (ESP), Poverty and Social Policy Department (PSP), and Poverty, Gender, and Public Sector Management Department (PGP) were responsible for the functions of a number of different social- and poverty-focused sectors, including gender and development, poverty analysis and policy, and, temporarily, education. While the departments were organized into 'teams' or 'groups', activities often overlapped.

ESP was created as part of the Bank-wide 1993 reorganization. The Population and Human Resources Department (PHR) was terminated and its functions were split between two newly created departments: the Population, Health and Nutrition Department (PHN) and ESP. Both of these departments were placed in the Human Resources Development and Operations Policy Vice Presidency (HRO). ESP absorbed the functions of the following PHR divisions: Education and Employment Division (PHREE); the Women in Development Division (PHRWD); and the Poverty Analysisand Policy Division (PHRPA). ESP performed operational and analytical work in four main thematic areas:

• poverty analysis and social policy;

• labor markets and safety nets;

• women in development; and

• education and training.

The ESP Department was responsible for:

• formulating and disseminating policies and guidelines for its sectors;

• monitoring the effectiveness of policies and approaches;

• identifying and disseminating best practices and lessons of experience;

• liaising with external organizations and professionals in the field;

• assessing skills requirements and upgrading skills; and

• providing operational support to the Regions.

On July 1, 1995, HRO became the Human Capital Development and Operations Policy Vice Presidency (HCO), and ESP was terminated. The education team of ESP was moved into the newly established Human Development Department (HDD) of HCO. The remaining teams were moved into the new Poverty and Social Policy Department (PSP). PSP contained four groups:

• Gender Analysis and Policy;

• Poverty and Social Assistance;

• Labor Markets, Social Protection, and Public Sector Management;

• Participation and Non-Governmental Organizations.

On December 31, 1995, HCO was terminated, and replaced by the Human Capital Development Vice-Presidency (HCD). PSP remained in HCD.

As part of a Bank-wide reorganization in 1997, PSP sectors and functions were mapped into a new network-based structure. This process began in September of 1996 with a series of temporary relocations of PSP sectors. Labor Market and Social Protection activities were transferred to the Human Development Department (HDD) and then subsequently mapped into the new Human Development Network (HDN). The Participation and Non-Governmental Organizations team was transferred to the Environmental Social Policy and Resettlement Division (ENVSP) of the Environmentally Sustainable Development Vice Presidency (ESDVP). ENVSP was subsequently mapped into the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Network (ESSD). In December 1996, the Human Capital Development Vice-Presidency (HCD) was terminated. The remaining PSP Groups of HCD were temporarily transferred to the Development Economics Vice Presidency (DEC) under the oversight of International Economic Department Director (IECDR) Masood Ahmed. While being overseen by DEC, the Gender Analysis and Policy Group, the Poverty and Social Assistance Group, and activities related to Public Sector Management temporarily became the Poverty, Gender, and Public Sector Management Department (PGP). The transition was finally completed in July 1997 when the sectors within PGP were individually mapped into the new Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network (PREM).

In late 1981, the Bank decided to reorganize its economic analysis, research, and policy activities. In February 1982, the Development Policy Staff became the Economics and Research Staff (ERS) headed by Vice President Hollis Chenery (VPERS) who reported directly to the President. VPERS was Chief Economic Adviser to the President and a member of the Bank's Managing Committee and Senior Management Council.

Chenery continued to have a Research Adviser in his office who headed a small policy advisory unit, but the subordinate units were reduced to two. The Economic Analysis and Projections Department (EPD) continued and a new Development Research Department (DRD) was created out of a combination of the Development Research Center and a portion of the Development Economics Department under the former VPD. In August 1982, Hollis Chenery was succeeded by Ann Krueger who served as VPERS until December 1986. Benjamin B. King served as Acting VPERS after her departure.

The ERS functions were nearly the same as those of the former Development Policy Staff and included responsibility for: analysis of the international economy, external debt and commodities; country modeling and comparative analysis; maintenance of economic and social data; basic research on the nature of the development process; improvement of analytical tools for economic work; oversight for the Bank-wide research program; and preparation of The World Development Report.

In 1982, the former External Research Budget (ERB) became known as the Research Support Budget (RSB). Researchers in all parts of the Bank were allowed to compete for funds from the RSB to finance consultants, research assistance, and travel expenses related to their research. In 1983, a senior economist was added to the staff to manage a policy analysis unit in the immediate office of the Vice President. In August 1983, the Research Policy Council (RPC) was established by the Bank President to provide leadership in the guidance, coordination, and evaluation of all Bank research.Consisting of five Vice-Presidents and chaired by VPERS, it was charged with developing Bankwide strategic objectives, polices and plans for research; establishing priorities for funding of Bank research; and making resource recommendations to the President and the Managing Directors regarding the Bank's funding of research.

In January 1984, the RPC replaced the Research Committee with two new bodies: the Research Projects Approval Committee (REPAC), which reported to RPC and had responsibility for reviewing and evaluating project proposals; and the Bank Research Advisory Group (BRAG), which was tasked with providing RPC with a wide range of Bank views on research issues. A new Research Administration Unit (RAD) was created in VPERS in July 1984 headed by a Research Administrator to provide secretariat support to RPC. In February 1985, a managing editor was added to the staff for the new journal World Bank Economic Review.

In the May 1987 general reorganization of the Bank, the ERS Vice Presidency was terminated and most of its functions were transferred to the new Development Economics Vice Presidency (DEC).

Joseph Wood was educated at Yale, the University of Munich, and Oxford before joining the World Bank in 1968. Wood would eventually serve as the Bank's Regional Vice President for South Asia (SAR) between 1991 and 1997. However, before gaining this position, he held a variety of other roles in the Bank, including: Economist in the East African Department (EAFEA), September 1968 to May 1971; Economist in the East Africa Field Office (EPMEA), May 1971 to January 1972; Economist in the Development Finance Companies Director's Office (DFCDR), February 1972 to January 1974; Division Chief in the Programming and Budget Department Financial Analysis Division (PABFA), April 1974 to March 1976; Assistant Director in Programming and Budget Department Office of the Director (PABDR), June 1976 to March 1979; Director Financial Policy and Analysis Department (FPADR), August 1980 to May 1983; Vice President Financial Policy, Planning, and Budgeting Vice Presidency (FPBVP), September 1983 to May 1987; and Vice President ofthe Financial Policy and Risk Management Vice Presidency (FPRVP), July 1987 to May 1991.

Wood became the Regional Vice President of the South Asia Region (SASVP) in December 1991 and held the position until February 1997. Wood then served briefly as the Senior Adviser to the Office of the President Development Effectiveness Unit (EXCDE) and Senior Adviser to Development Effectiveness Unit (DEU) before retiring from the World Bank in 1998. Subsequently, he was retained as a consultant for the Managing Director Operations Quality Assurance Group (MDOQA) in 1999, and the Quality Assurance Group (QAG) in 2000.

Masood Ahmed was born and raised in Pakistan. He obtained graduate and post-graduate degrees from the London School of Economics.

Masood Ahmed's World Bank career began in the World Bank's Young Professionals Program (YPP) in 1979. After 1980, Ahmed served in numerous roles at the World Bank, including: Economist in the Energy Department (EGYDR), 1980-1981; Economist in the Energy Assessment Division (EGYEA), 1981-1982; Senior Economist in the Energy Assessment Division (EGYEA), 1983; Deputy Division Chief in the Energy Assessment Division (EYGEA), 1983-1985; Deputy Division Chief in the Energy Strategy and Pre-Investment Division I (EGYS1), 1985-1986; Deputy Division Chief in the Industrial Development and Finance Companies Division of the Europe, Middle East, and North Africa Projects Department (EMPID), 1986-1987; Division Chief in the Industry and Energy Operations Division of the Europe, Middle East, and North Africa Country Department II (EM2IE), 1987-1991; Division Chief in the International Economic Department Debt and International Finance Division (IECDI), 1991-1993; Director of the International Economic Department (IECDR), 1993-1997; and Vice-President in the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network (PREM), 1997-2000.

Ahmed's early Bank career included helping to manage and develop the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP), which provided technical assistance for energy development in low and middle income countries. From 1987 to 1991, Ahmed oversaw lending and advisory services for development projects in the Maghreb countries of Northwest Africa. From 1991 to 1993, as a Division Chief in the IEC, Ahmed took part in economic forecasting and policy development related to international capital flows and debt. As IEC Director from 1993 to 1997, Ahmed played a significant policy advisory role to develop the Joint International Monetary Fund and World Bank framework for the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative (HIPC). From 1997 to 2000, Ahmed participated extensively in the creation and implementation of the PREM Network, and continued to serve an important policy advisory role with the Bank's continued involvement with the HIPC Initiative. This includes his contribution in developing the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper approach, which provided heavily indebted countries a comprehensive and country-focused plan in alleviating long-term debt.

Masood Ahmed left the World Bank in January 2000.

The Development Economics Vice Presidency (DEC) was established in the May 1987 Bank reorganization as part of the new senior vice presidential complex for policy, planning, and research (SVPPR). One goal of the reorganization was to more closely subordinate research activities to the Bank's strategic agenda and operational requirements. In September 1987, President Conable announced the selection of Stanley Fischer for the position of Vice President, Development Economics and Chief Economist (DECVP). Upon assuming duties, Fischer had multiple responsibilities, the foremost being principal adviser to the Bank President and to the Senior Vice President, Policy, Planning and Research (SVPPR).

Initially, only the International Economics Department (IEC), the Country Economics Department (CEC), and the Economic and Statistical Advisers in the DEC Front Office reported to DECVP. By 1988, DECVP's responsibilities were expanded by the transfer from the Front Office of PRESV [Senior Vice President, Policy, Planning and External Affairs] to the DEC Front Office of the Economic Development Institute (EDI), the Director of The World Development Report (WDR), the Research Administrator (RA) and his Research Advisory Staff (RAD), and the editors of The World Bank Economic Review and The World Bank Research Observer.

DECVP also chaired several boards, committees, and other panels including the EDI Advisory Board, the Research and Publications Policy Council, the Social and Economic Statistics Committee, the Planning Assumptions Committee, and the Advisory Committee on Economist Training. DECVP was also ex-officio Chairman of the Research Projects Approval Committee (REPAC) which had responsibility for administering the Bank's Research Support Budget (RSB). A permanent Research Committee, also chaired by DECVP, was introduced in January 1988 to establish overall research priorities and to evaluate and make recommendations on individual research proposals submitted for funding from the RSB. The Research Administrator, who headed the Research Administration Unit (RAD), was Deputy Chairman of the Research Committee and REPAC. By 1993, RAD's responsibilities, in addition to administering the RSB, included: managing and editing The World Bank Research Observer and The World Bank Economic Review; administering, producing, and disseminating the Working Papers Series, the Research Abstracts, the Development Briefs, and the Bulletin, and managing the Annual Bank Conference on Development Economics (ABCDE) which was also fundedby RSB.

Fischer was succeeded as DECVP by Lawrence H. Summers who reported to the Bank on January 14, 1991. By 1991, the DEC Front Office included a Program Coordinator for Administration. Lewis Preston, who assumed the Bank Presidency in 1991, terminated the Senior Vice Presidencies which resulted in the reassignment of the Geneva Office from the SVPPR Front Office to the DEC Front Office. The Economic Advisory Staff (EAS) was also transferred from the SVPPR Front Office to become the Development Policy Group (DPG) under DEC. The Geneva Office was closed on 30 June 1993 and DPG was merged with the DEC Front Office in November 1993. After the termination of SVPPR, DECVP reported to Managing Director Attila Karaosmanoglu in the President's Office (EXT).

Lawrence Summers left the Bank in January 1993 and Michael Bruno became DECVP effective September 1, 1993. The duties of the DEC Front Office under Bruno included providing research support and policy advice to DECVP, managing review functions within DEC, and coordinating the DEC work program, budget, and other administrative services. In a December 7, 1995 Announcement to Staff on the Restructuring of the Bank's Top Management, Bruno's position as DECVP was elevated to Senior Vice President, Development Economics and Chief Economist and was made part of the President's new Executive Committee effective January 1, 1996. A Bank announcement of April 30, 1996 indicated that Michael Bruno had informed President Wolfensohn of his intention to leave the Bank bySeptember 1, 1996.

On December 11, 1996, President Wolfensohn announced that Joseph Stiglitz would succeed Michael Bruno as Senior Vice President, Development Economics and Chief Economist (DECVP) effective February 1, 1997. As a result of further Bank reorganizations, by January 1998 DEC consisted of the Research Data and Prospects Group and EDI (which later became known as the World Bank Institute). Nicholas Stern succeeded Joseph Stiglitz as DECVP in July 2000 and filled the position until September 28, 2003. By 2000, the majority of research funding came from the department budget of DEC's Research Group. The Research Committee membership included Regional Chief Economists and managers of the Networks, IFC [International Finance Corporation], World Bank Institute, and the Operations Evaluation Department. Their primary responsibility was to advise DEC on the allocation of the Bankwide RSB. The Committee was to normally consider research projects with planned completion dates within three years.

DEC records include the records of organizations which were assigned to the Development Economics Vice Presidency in May 1987, records of noted economist Bela Balassa who served as a consultant with DEC and predecessor organizations from 1966 to 1991, and records of the Bank's Special Representatives to the U.N. Organizations in Geneva dating from 1979 to the close of the Geneva office in 1993. Records of organizations formed within DEC in the May 1987 reorganization as well as organizations formerly assigned to other parts of the Bank and whose functions and records were later transferred to DEC in the 1990s include the following:

Policy and Review Department

The Policy and Review Department (PRD), which was established on July 1, 1990 and reported to the Senior Vice President, Policy, Research and External Affairs (PRESV), was formed as part of the fine tuning of the 1987 Reorganization. PRD replaced the Strategic Planning and Review Department (SPR) after the International Economic Division had been transferred from SPR to the International Economic Relations Division (EXTIE) in the External Relations Department (EXT) and the policy analysis and review function had been expanded and assigned to PRD. PRD was responsible for: 1) coordinating and managing the policy formulation process in the PRE complex; 2) maintaining a systematic strategic planning process; 3) managing the Bank's work in support of the Development Committee; and 4) providing support to the Secretary of the Policy Committee. In addition, the Department provided support to PRESV on PRE-wide matters, including the PRE policy agenda, work program, and budget. Paul Isenman served as PRD Director during the entire period of its existence. The Department had one division, the Review and Analysis Division (PRDRA) and two units: the Policy Development Unit (PRDPD) and the Program Management Unit (PRDPM).

The Review and Analysis Division (PRDRA): 1) coordinated PRE's ex ante review of adjustment lending, Country Strategy Papers, Policy Framework Papers, and other policy issues coming before the President's Council, the Operations Committee and other Bank-wide Committees (e.g., the Finance Policy Committee) as appropriate; 2) carried out, with Operations, the annual lending allocations review; 3) provided a focal point for PRE work on poverty; and 4) managed PRE's development effectiveness work. The responsibility for development effectiveness work was new to PRDRA (prior to July 1, 1990, it was the responsibility of Sector Policy and Research), but the other responsibilities were inherited from the Policy Analysis and Review Division (SPRPA) of the Strategic Planning and Review Department (SPR).

The Policy Development Unit (PRDPD), headed by Geoffrey B. Lamb, had responsibility for: coordinating and assisting in the development of PRE's agenda of policy work; serving as secretariat for the PRE Committee; and monitoring PRE work on selected issues which cut across departmental and sectoral responsibilities.

The Program Management Unit (PRDPM) coordinated for all PRE units work program and budget preparation, Apex reports, and mid-year and retrospective reviews. PRDPM also administered the Management Information System (MIS) and Office Technology (OT) plan for all PRE units.

The Policy and Review Department was abolished on November 30, 1991, as part of a reorganization of the senior management structure which eliminated all the Senior Vice Presidencies and distributed their functions to three Managing Directors in the Executive Office (EXC). Thereview functions of PRD and the Economic Advisory Staff (EAS) were merged in DEC as the newly established Development Policy Group (DPG).

Economic Advisory Staff

The Economic Advisory Staff (EAS) succeeded the Country Policy Department (CPD) of the Operations Policy Vice President (OPSVP) in May 1987. CPD had served as the principal unit in charge of improving country and economic sector work in Bank operations from 1982 to 1987. The Bank-wide reorganization and termination of the OPSVP in 1987, however,prompted the transfer of functions and staff to EAS.

The Economic Advisory Staff (EAS) was established in May 1987 and placed directly subordinate to the Senior Vice President, Operations (OPNSV). EAS furnished economic advice to OPNSV. EAS's prime mission was to assist OPNSV in the approval process of Country Strategy Papers (CSPs) and adjustment loans. Specifically, ERS was responsible for: 1) advising the Senior Vice President of Operations on economic matters to be reviewed by the Policy Committeeor approved by the Senior Vice President; 2) serving as the Secretariat for the Operations Committee (later called the Loan Committee) and organizing the review by the Operations Committee of policy papers, country strategy papers, and adjustment operations; 3) maintaining the Bank's coordination with other international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Paris Club, the Berne Union and OECD Export Credit Group; and 4) representing the Operations Complex on the Social and Economic Statistics Committee.

Throughout its existence, EAS had no subordinate units. Its Director (Vinod Dubey, June 1, 1987 to July 30, 1990; Enzo R. Grilli, August 1, 1990 to November 30, 1991) was assisted by a Senior Adviser (Fred David Levy) and a Chief Economist (Enzo Grilli until July 31, 1990). After Grilli was appointed Director, the Chief Economist position was abolished. In spring 1991, a second Senior Adviser, Anandarup Roy, was added to the staff.

On December 1, 1991, with the terminationof the Operations Senior Vice Presidency, the ERS staff and functions were transferred to the Development Economics Vice Presidency (DEC) as the Development Policy Group (DPG).

Development Policy Group

The Development Policy Group (DPG) was established as part of the restructuring following the appointment of President Lewis Preston when the Senior Vice Presidencies were terminated and the functions located in their Front Offices were assigned to a vice presidency. On December 1, 1991, the Economic Advisory Staff (EAS) which had reported directly to the Senior Vice President, Operations (OPNSV), was transferred to the Development Economics Vice Presidency (DEC) and renamed the Development Policy Group. DPG continued the main duties of EAS: monitoring and reviewing adjustment operations and country strategies. The DPG staff reviewed all adjustment operations prior to consideration by the Loan Committee and before they were sent to the Board for approval. The staff reviewed country strategies (CSPs) whilethey were being formulated at the regional level and prior to reaching the Policy Review Committee. In addition, DPG had a leadership role in determining country performance rankings for IDA allocations and was responsible for advising the Vice President and Chief Economist on Bank policies and procedures and on coordination with the International Monetary Fund, the Berne Union, the Paris Club, and other international institutions. DPG began as a separate unit in DEC but was absorbed into the DEC Front Office in November 1993. Throughout its existence, DPG had no subordinate units. Its directors were: Enzo Grilli, December 1, 1991 to December 31, 1992; Anadarup Ray, acting from January 1, 1993 to October 31, 1993; and Mark Baird, November 1, 1993 to June 30, 1997. The Director was assisted by one senior adviser and by one or more economic advisers. DPG was abolished in the reorganization of DEC which went into effect on July 1, 1997.

International Economics Department

The International Economics Department (IEC), established as part of the 1987 Reorganization of President Conable, absorbed the functions of the former Economic Analysis and Projections Department (EPD) of the Economics and Research Vice Presidency (ERS). IEC focused on global policy issues and trends in the world economy, supported and generated national and international data for research and Bank operations, and carried out research on international finance and trade issues. More specifically, IEC had responsibility for: analyzing global trade issues in manufactures and services; maintaining and analyzing data on external debt and capital flows; advising on policy options concerning foreign borrowing and debt management; researching and maintaining data on primary commodity markets; preparing market forecasts and advising on policy options regarding Bank lending for commodities; formulating an overview of the global economic situation and promoting consensus on it throughout the Bank through Long-Term and Short-Term Outlook papers and other reports; building tools for model-based global forecasting and doing problem-focused research; managing the Bank's Social and Economic Database (BESD); developing computing systems for socio-economic data management, analysis, modeling and reporting; providing statistical services to the Bank and to developing countries; and directing the preparation of such publications as the World Bank Atlas, the World Development Indicators, the World Debt Tables, and Global Economic Prospects (GEP).

When the World Bank's Geneva office closed on June 30, 1993, IEC assumed its functions regarding GATT. Beginning in November 1993, responsibility for the Paris Club and Berne Union was transferred from the DEC Front Office to IEC, and IEC staff represented the Bank at the Paris Club and Berne Union meetings. The Directors of IEC were:

• Jean Baneth: June 1, 1987 - October 16, 1989

• Johannes Linn: October 16, 1989 - May 1, 1990

• D.C. Rao: May 1, 1990 - November 1993

• Masood Ahmed: December 1, 1993 - July 1, 1997

IEC was terminated in the July 1997 reorganization of DEC.

Country Economics Department, Policy, Research Department, and the Finance and Private Sector Development Division

The Country Economics Department (CEC) was established in May 1987 as part of a general Bank reorganization and was placed in the new Development Economics Vice Presidency (DEC). The CEC incorporated functions of the former Development Research Department (DRD), the Economic Analysis and Projections Department (EAP) and the Country Policy Department (CPD). CEC was responsible for providing leadership in the design and analysis of country development policies through research policy work, operation advice and support, and training and liaison with outside research groups. It did so in specified issue areas, among them: 1) trade policy; 2) macroeconomic adjustment and its relationship to economic growth and poverty alleviation; 3) public economics with regard to resource mobilization, pricing, taxation and subsidies; 4) public sector management and private sector development, focusing on institutional reform of government and state enterprises, and the conditions for private sector development; and 5) financial policy and systems, including financial sector lending, regulation, supervision and restructuring.

At the time of its establishment in 1987, the CEC had the following divisions: the Trade Policy Division (CECTP); the Debt and Macroeconomic Adjustment Division (CECDA, later the Macroeconomic Adjustment and Growth Division [CECMG]); the Public Economics Division (CECPE); the Financial Policy and Systems Division (CECFP); the Public Sector Management and Private Sector Development Division (CECPS); and the Special Studies Division (CECSS). On 1 January, 1990 a Socialist Economy Reform Unit (CECSE) was established. In July 1992, the CECSE and the CECMG were merged into the new Transition and Macro-Adjustment Division (CECTM).

In the January 1993 Bank reorganization, two of CEC's divisions (Public Sector Management and Private Sector Development [CECPS] and Financial Policy and Systems [CECFP]) were transferred, respectively, to the Private Sector Department (PSD) and the Financial Sector Development Department (FSD) in the Finance and Private Sector Development Vice Presidency (FPD). The remaining CEC divisions, along with research positions from the terminated Sector and Operations Policy Vice Presidency (OSP), were reorganized to form the principal research arm of the Bank, the Policy Research Department (PRD). These developments effectively consolidated all research functions of the Bank under the Vice President, Development Economics (DEC). The PRD Department had the mandate to engage in research on the full range of macro and microeconomic issues underpinning the Bank's country assistance strategies and operations. To that end, it was assigned responsibility for: 1) providing operational support through direct input on issues needing research; 2) producing major, crosscutting research studies; 3) testing and disseminating state-of-the art analytical approaches in an operational context; and 4) providing operational and country-based experience to staff.

The following new divisions were announced as part of PRD as of February 1, 1993: Trade Policy (PRDTP, formerly CECTP); Transition and Macro-Adjustment (PRDTM, formerly CECTM); Poverty and Human Resources (PRDPH, formerly CECPH), Public Economics (PRDPE, formerly CECPE); Finance and Private Sector Development (PRDFD, formerly CECFD); and Environment, Infrastructure and Agriculture (PRDEI, formerly CECEI). PRD ended with the reorganization of DEC which went into effect on July 1, 1997.

Development Research Group

The Development Research Group (DECRG) was established in the Bank reorganization which took effect on July 1, 1997. It replaced the former Policy Research Department. The creation of DPG was in part the result of new organizational changes within the Bank, particularly the creation of networks. Policy research was consolidated under one DEC Group, DECRG, and researchers in the International Economics Department (mainly in the trade area) were reassigned to DECRG. The five former PRD divisions were abolished and their budgets were centralized and replaced by multi-year task-based budgets, with task managers held responsible for delivering products within the budgets. Tasks included cross-cutting issues such as aid effectiveness, industrial pollution, and growth and the environment. Six new Research Managers were recruited, some of which were designated network research coordinators. The new DECRG Director and the new Research Managers formed the management team for DECRG.

Shelton H. Davis, American anthropologist, was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 1942. He received undergraduate degrees in Sociology and Anthropology from Antioch College (Yellow Springs, Ohio) in 1965, and a Ph.D. in Social Anthropology from Harvard University in 1970.

Prior to his employment at the World Bank, Davis followed academic pursuits, which included teaching Native American and Latin American anthropology undergraduate courses at Harvard University from 1971 to 1973. He additionally helped found the indigenous documentation center Indigena, Inc., in Berkeley, California from 1973 to 1975. In 1975, he established the Anthropological Research Center (ARC) in Boston, Massachusetts, which devoted its research to analyzing the effects of development policies on indigenous communities and the environment. In his time at ARC, Davis published one of his most influential works: Victims of the Miracle: Development and the Indians of Brazil (1977). From 1984 to 1986, Davis served as visiting scholar at the Organization of American States (OAS) Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.

In 1986, Davis began his career with the World Bank. He worked in multiple roles during his career at the World Bank, including: consultant in the Office of Environmental and Scientific Affairs, Operational Policies and Programs (OESA), 1986-1987; Senior Sociologist in the Regional Technical Department, Environment Unit, Latin America and Caribbean Region (LATEN), 1987-1991; Senior Sociologist in the Environment Department, Environmental Assessments and Programs Division (ENVAP), 1991-1992; Principal Sociologist for the Social Policy and Resettlement Division (ENVSP), 1993-1997; Principal Sociologist in the Environment Department, Social Development Department (SDV), 1997-1998; Sector Manager in the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Unit , Latin America and Caribbean Region (LCSES), 1998-1999; and Sector Manager in the Social Development Unit, Latin America and Caribbean Region (LCSEO), 2000-2004. Davis retired from the World Bank in 2004, but continued to perform consultant work from 2004 to 2008.

His work at the World Bank focused on developing policies that safeguarded the rights of indigenous communities, protected biodiversity, and helped promote sustainable and responsible social development for Bank-funded projects. As a World Bank sociologist, Davis took part in assessments, and reviews of Bank-funded development projects and designed procedures, and methods to evaluate potential social and environmental impacts on indigenous and minority communities from modern development. He additionally helped review World Bank development policies and advised the Bank to include social impact considerations, and embed certain compliance mechanisms in policy to address challenges such as involuntary resettlement of indigenous peoples, conservation of biodiversity, and exclusion of indigenous peoples in development projects. In this regard, Davis played a key role in developing the operational directive "OD 4.20- Indigenous Peoples" adopted by the World Bank in 1991 and its successor "OP 4.10 - Indigenous Peoples" in 2005. He also organized numerous training sessions, conferences, and workshops related to indigenous rights, environment, and sustainability, including World Bank conferences: "Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development" (1994) and "Poverty Reduction and Social Exclusion" (1996). As Sector Manager in the Social Development and Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Units of the Latin America and Caribbean Region (LCSES AND LCSEO), Davis oversaw the compliance, enforcement, training, and implementation of the safeguards he helped to cultivate in World Bank development policy.

While employed at the World Bank, Davis published numerous books, articles, and reports on indigenous communities of Latin America, including: Protecting Amerindian Lands: A Review of World Bank Experience with Indigenous Land Regularization Programs in Lowland South America (1992) and The Maya Movement and National Culture in Guatemala (2004). He additionally taught at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, University of California, Berkeley, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Boston University, Clark University, the University of Massachusetts Amherst, and Georgetown University.

Shelton H. Davis passed away at the age of 67 in Arlington County, Virginia on May 27, 2010.

In 1989 the World Bank commissioned the Brookings Institution to prepare a history of the Bank as part of the commemoration of the Bank's fiftieth anniversary. The history was to be a comprehensive analytical history, describing the evolution of the policies, operations and administration of the World Bank and its affiliates. The book would cover the Bank's history from the beginning of its operation but would focus on the years after 1970.

Brookings engaged John Lewis of the United States and Richard Webb of Peru to prepare the work and hired Devesh Kapur of India as research associate. Kapur's work became so central to the project that he became a third co-author. An international advisory committee was formed to advise the authors, and the Bank established an Internal Review Group to review the drafts and provide the Bank's views to the authors. The Bank also provided an office for the authors and a liaison officer for the project, and the authors were given unrestricted access to Bank operational files dated prior to June 30, 1991.

The first volume was written by the three co-authors and covered the overarching history of the Bank. The second volume is a series of essays on the World Bank's relations with member countries or with specific issues or organizations; the essays were written by guest authors from outside the Bank, except one written by the three principal co-authors. Although the plan was to publish in 1994, The World Bank: Its First Half Century, was not published until 1997.

Tim Campbell, an American national, was employed by the World Bank from 1988 to 2005. Campbell earned a B.A. in Political Science from U.C. Berkeley in 1966, a Masters in City and Regional Planning from U.C. Berkeley in 1970, and a Ph.D. in Urban Studies and Planning from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (M.I.T.) in 1980. Prior to joining the Bank, Campbell worked for more than thirteen years both as private consultant for a variety of clients including the United Nations, World Bank, Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), USAID, other governments, private organizations and companies, and as an instructor and researcher at Stanford University and U.C. Berkeley. He also served as a Peace Corps Volunteer for two years.

Campbell joined the World Bank in May of 1988 in the Latin America and Caribbean Technical Department (LAT) as Senior Urban Planner in the Infrastructure and Energy Division (LATIE). LATIE was one of five Technical Departments which supported LAT Country Departments (CDs) by developing regional sector knowledge and policies. Among other projects, Campbell initially participated in the preparation of a proposed Guatemala Municipal Strengthening Project and in the appraisal of a proposed loan for a water and sewage project in Brazil. Campbell briefly held the position of Chief, Urban and Water Unit, from April, 1992, until December, 1992.

The Bank's 1993 reorganization terminated most of the Technical Departments in the LAT including the LATIE. Campbell was retained in the new Advisory Group (LATAD) as the Principal Urban Sector Specialist.

Campbell transferred from LAT to the Global Urban Unit of the Transportation, Water and Urban Development Department (TWUGL) in September of 1997; he later moved to TWU's Urban Development Division (TWURD) in July of 1999. Campbell remained in TWURD through 2001. However, the Division itself was moved into the Infrastructure Development Department (INF) in 2000 and the Transport and Urban Development Department (TUD) in 2001. During these years, Campbell served as the head of the Urban Partnership, whose objective was to develop a new urban and local government strategy and formulate city assistance strategies. To meet this objective, the Urban Partnership facilitated: city assistance strategies; city advisory services; research studies; information dissemination; and mayors' colloquia. Campbell also pioneered and served as the Bank-wide coordinator for the Bank's city development strategies (CDS), a new analytical tool focusing on cities as the unit of analysis in national development.

In 2001, Campbell moved to the World Bank Institute (WBI), the Bank's capacity development branch. He served as the head of the WBI Urban Team until his retirement from the Bank in December of 2005. The Urban Team was located in WBI's Finance and Private Sector Development division (WBIFP).

In the years following his retirement, Campbell regularly worked as a consultant for the World Bank in a variety of departments: WBIFP, Independent Evaluation Group (IEG), East Asia and Pacific Regional Office (EAP), and two different Latin American and the Caribbean Sector units (LCS).

Campbell has authored a number of books during and after his time at the World Bank. These include: The Quiet Revolution (2003); Leadership and Innovation in Subnational Government: Case Studies from Latin America (editor, 2004); and Beyond Smart Cities?How Cities Network, Learn, and Innovate (2011).

The Development Policy Vice Presidency was established in the 1972 Bank reorganization. Before that time, the Bank President had an Economic Adviser on his immediate staff. Irving Friedman, who was appointed by President George D. Woods in October 1964, was the first to hold this position. Friedman supervised the Economics Department and the Director of Special Economic Studies in 1965, but prior to his departure from the position in 1970 he supervised four units: Economics Department, Economic Program Department, Computing Activities Department, and Development Research Center.

Hollis B. Chenery succeeded Friedman as Economic Adviser to the President in October 1970. Chenery initiated a comprehensive review of the Bank's research program. In the January 1971 Bank reorganization, the Economics staff was divided into three units all reporting to Chenery: the Economics Department; the Economic Program Department; and the Development Research Center. On April 13, 1971, Economic Research in the Bank, the report of the survey conducted by consultant economist Bela Belassa at Chenery's request, was issued. Belassa's report suggested that individual research projects be appraised in terms of their relative cost and benefits and that employment, planning, trade policy, and other new areas of inquiry be subjects of research proposals from the Development Research Center and the Economics Department with active participation of operational departments in the selection and review of the proposals and in the evaluation of completed research. The report concluded that responsibility for setting research priorities, approving the overall research program, and establishing a review process for research should be carried out by an Economic Research Committee chaired by the Economic Adviser to the President. In keeping with Belassa's review recommendations, a Bank-wide Research Committee was established.

When he announced the creation of the Development Policy Vice Presidency (VPD) in 1972, President Robert McNamara saidthat the new vice presidency would increase the Bank's policy formulation capability. Hollis Chenery was named VPD and continued to serve as the President's Economic Adviser. VPD was charged with increasing the Bank's knowledge of the development process and analyzing policies to assure the efficient attainment of development objectives. The Development Policy Staff had wide ranging responsibilities: coordinating policy work in the Bank; preparing papers on development policy and selected sector policy issues; reviewing Country Program Papers; managing the Bank's research program; conducting research on selected sectoral and inter-sectoral problems; operating the debt reporting system; providing country creditworthiness analyses; and providing specialists to support the country and sector economic work of the Regional offices. VPD was assisted by a Research Adviser who was responsible for managing the external research program and a technology adviser responsible for scientific and technology matters in the Bank. In addition, Chenery was assisted by Senior Adviser, Development Policy Ernest Stern. Stern's title changed to Director, Development Policy in 1974, but he continued to report directly to Chenery. Stern left VPD in 1975, but the position of Director, Development Policy continued until the Development Policy Staff evolved into the Economics and Research Staff (ERS).

A Bank-wide Research Committee was established and held its first meeting on April 28, 1971. VPD chaired the committee and the Senior Adviser, Development Policy was Deputy Chairman. The Research Committee was charged with providing advice to Chenery on the scope and content of the research program, recommending the overall level of the External Research Budget (ERB), a separate budget for the Bank's research program that was introduced in 1972, and monitoring and evaluating research. The research activities reviewed by the Research Committee and financed from the ERB all involved outside contracts. Only projects which required external resources (consultants and computer time) were considered eligible for funding from ERB. The identification number (RPO) number was assigned by the Research Committee for approved projects. A P was placed after the RPO number to indicate a proposal for ERB funding for research preparation or a project requiring a small grant. An A was placed after the RPO number to indicate projects involving the application of research methodologies or techniques developed under other Bank research projects to new contexts or new areas.

In 1977, VPD became chair of the committee and director of the staff that prepared The World Development Report. The Development Policy Vice Presidency was succeeded by the Economics and Research Vice Presidency (VPERS) in February 1982 and Hollis B. Chenery became VPERS.

The position of Director-General, Operations Evaluation (DGO), was established in 1975. To ensure impartiality, the DGO is appointed by the Executive Directors to renewable five-year terms and reports to the Board through its standing Committee on Development Effectiveness (CODE), which oversees the operations evaluation system of the Bank and IFC. Upon completion of assignment, the DGO may not return to the service of the Bank. The DGO maintains contact with the Executive Directors by attending all meetings of the Board and of CODE. While the independent evaluation function reports to the Board, it is administratively linked to the President. The DGO has the rank of a Vice President and participates in senior management meetings involving Vice Presidents. The performance review of the DGO is conducted by the President.

The DGO's responsibilities are discharged, for the World Bank, through the Operations Evaluation Department (OED) and, for the IFC, through functional oversight of the IFC Operations Evaluation Group (previously, the Operations Evaluation Unit).

The DGO is directly responsible to the Executive Directors of the Bank for:

• assessing whether the Bank's programs and activities are producing the expected results;

• incorporating OED's assessments and findings into recommendations that will help improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the Bank's programs and activities, and their responsiveness to member countries' needs and concerns;

• appraising the Bank's operations evaluation system and reporting on its adequacy for use within the Bank and by member governments;

• encouraging and assisting member countries to develop their own operations evaluation system;

• reporting periodically on actions taken by the Bank in response to evaluation findings and presenting an overall assessment of the effectiveness of the feedback system to the Executive Directors and the President;

• cooperating with the evaluation heads of other international financial institutions and development assistance agencies.

Zmarak Shalizi joined the World Bank in 1975 as a participant in the Bank's Young Professionals Program. He served as an economist in the Europe, Middle East, and North Africa Regional Office; the Water Supply and Urban Development Department; the Resource Mobilization and Public Management Division of the Country Policy Department; and the Public Economics Division of the Country Economics Department. After a brief assignment as the chief administrative officer in the Policy Research Department, he was named the chief of the Transport Division in the Infrastructure and Urban Development Department (later the Transport, Water and Urban Development Department) in 1991. In 1995 he became the chief of the Environment, Infrastructure and Agriculture Division in the Policy Research Department. Two years later, in 1997, he moved to the Development Research Group in the Development Economics vice presidency as a research manager, becoming senior research manager in 2005.

Ernest Stern was born in 1933 in Frankfurt, Germany. He spent his childhood in Amsterdam where his family moved before being interned in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp during the Second World War. His family survived internment and after returning to the Netherlands where Stern attended high school, he emigrated to the United States in 1948. He received his education at Queen's College, New York and at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, earning his M.A. and Ph.D. in International Economics. Hejoined USAID in 1963 and held posts in India, Pakistan and Turkey. Stern also served as the Deputy Executive Secretary and Staff Director of the Commission on International Development (the Pearson Commission) from 1968 to 1969 and as Senior Staff Member of the White House Council on International Economic Policy in 1971.

Stern joined the World Bank in 1972 as a Senior Advisor in the Office of the Economic Adviser to the President (January - October 1972). One of his tasks was to administer the economic research program at a time when there was considerable research being done at the World Bank in the absence of a centrally managed program. Stern organized the program by developing priorities, broadening participation with other researchers, and establishing a separate research fund so that projects could be financed outside of the annual administrative budget. The Bank also began to focus on improving dissemination of research.

From 1972 to 1974, Stern served in the newly created research arm of the Bank as Senior Advisor, Development Policy in the Office of the Vice President for Development Policy (VPD). In addition to helping Development Policy Vice President Hollis Chenery run the various departments and manage the economics and policy staff, Stern also focused on country economic reports, country strategies, and regional program review. He also regularly served as the unit's contact point with the Bank's regional units. In 1974, he was promoted to Director, Development Policy (1974-1975).

InOctober 1975, Stern moved to the operations side of the Bank when he was named Vice President, South Asia Region (SAR). In this role he dealt with operations in South Asia, assessing the Bank's participation in projects, country priorities, policies, and economic management problems. Under Stern's leadership, SAR contributed towards an articulation of basic needs and poverty alleviation strategy and the establishment of standards for project implementation.

In 1977, Stern was appointed by Bank President Robert McNamara to supervise the preparation of the Bank's landmark first World Development Report (WDR), which addressed accelerating growth and reducing poverty and was published in 1978.

In 1978, Stern succeeded Burke Knapp as Senior Vice President of Operations. The position was initially re-titled the Vice President of Operations (VPO) but in 1980 the position was again upgraded to Senior Vice President of Operations (SVPOP).

As Chief Operations Officer of the World Bank, Stern implemented a disciplined approach to lending with established operational directives that limited extensions given to loans. He had extended loans discontinued if they were determined unsuccessful through close project monitoring and follow-up. He was also involved in policy and budget for lending discussions with the Board of Executives. Stern was a main promoter of structural adjustment lending and was also an advocate of guarantees as a credit-enhancing tool. He made the latter a new financial instrument when he participated in the debt deal with Chile after the emergence of the debt crisis in 1982. This marked the first time that a guarantee of World Bank authority was used.

Between 1981 and 1986 under Stern's leadership, the Bank's operations function formulated guidance on population resettlement issues, treatment of indigenous people, and the environmental impact of dams. A restructured extension service program to benefit farmers in developing countries was implemented and the role of the Bank's environment sector was also expanded.

Also during this period, Stern proposed to explore whether uncommitted International Development Association (IDA) funds could be mobilized for a special purpose for low-income African countries. In 1985, Stern convened a government donor's meeting in Paris that was successful in creating a Special Facility for Africa (SAF) and initially raising over $1.5 billion. SAF eventually evolved into the Special Program for Africa.

As part of the Bank-wide reorganization of 1987, Stern was named Senior Vice President, Finance (FINSV, 1987-1991). Under his direction, FINSV formulated investment guidelines and changed borrowing strategy and instruments. It developed global bonds, which became a benchmark for large borrowers, and implemented several other new instruments. It also began to make changes to borrowing in the Japanese market, reduced reliance on special Central Bank financing, and made reforms in the currency pooling system. Stern also led a restructuring of the Controller's Office and the Pension Administration to include an oversight function.

From 1991 to 1995, Stern served as Managing Director with oversight of World Bank Group operations in South Asia, Eastern Europe, and the former Soviet Union, as well as the Bank's finance and private sector development sector, treasury operations, and budget. He served as acting president after Lewis Preston's death in 1995.

Stern retired from the World Bank in 1995 and joined J.P. Morgan, after which he became a partner and senior advisor at Rohatyn Group.

Ernest Stern died at home in New York on June 7, 2019 at the age of 85.

John A. King joined the World Bank in 1963 in the Economic Development Institute, then became a policy planning officer in the Development Service Department and in 1970 became a training adviser in the Office of the Director, Projects. From 1972-1978 he served as the Assistant to the Vice President, Projects. He was the secretary of the Steering Committee of the 1972 Bank reorganization. He left the Bank in 1978.

Richard E. Barry was one of the Bank members of the Reorganization Team 1971-1972; Chief Administrative Officer for the East Africa Region 1972-1980; Operations Coordinator of the Administrative Services Department 1980-1983; managed the staff of the Vice President, Personnel and Administration, 1983-1985; Chief of Office Systems Division 1985-1987; Chief of Information Services Division 1987-1989; managed the development of human factors and design strategy for Bank buildings 1990-1992; retired 1992.

Leonard B. Rist, a French national, was born in 1905 and studied law and literature at Paris University. From 1927 to 1928 he served as attache to the French Embassy in Moscow. In the following year he went to New York to join a banking training program at William Blair & Company.

Rist returned to France to work as a private banker at J.P. Morgan's Paris office, Morgan & Cie from 1930 until 1939 when he enlisted in the French Army. He was imprisoned by Nazi forces and spent 18 months in German prison camps before he was freed with the help of Morgan & Cie bankers. Rist became Vice-President of Morgan & Cie in 1945. In the same year, the French Treasury requested Rist to be their representative for the Allied Council's Finance Committee in Austria. He served as the Chief of Finance, French Division from August 1945 until March 1946.

He arrived in Washington in April 1946 at the request of the French Treasury and thereafter the Government of France appointed Rist the French Alternate Executive Directorof IBRD in May 1946. He joined the Bank staff in August 1946 as the first Director of the Research Department which he later renamed the Economics Department. Rist was responsible for developing the basis of the economic aspects of lending, directing country economic studies, and setting standards for economic appraisals and assessing creditworthiness.

Rist served as head of the Economic Department until April 1961, when he was appointed as the Bank's Special Representative for Africa. From January 1963 until 1970 he was the Special Adviser to the President beginning with President George D. Woods. The first of his assignments was to direct the work of the economic group studying the economic implications of the new Federation of Malaysia.

Rist retired from the Bank in April 1970. Following his retirement, Rist returned to his native France and was also a consultant to the Bank as chief of the economic mission to Togo. He died in Paris on 1 February 1982.

Pedro-Pablo Kuczynski was born on October 3, 1938 in Lima, Peru. He attended Oxford University where he earned a degree in politics and economics. He then earned a master's degree in economics from Princeton University in 1961.

Kuczynski joined the World Bank immediately following his time at Princeton. He was hired as a loan officer and economist in the Western Hemisphere Department. His work included economic research on a number of Central and South American countries with a focus on mining and extractive industries. In 1963 he lectured at the Bank's Economic Development Institute (EDI).

In 1967 Kuczynski returned to Peru where he held a number of positions, including Director of the Central Reserve Bank of Peru. He returned to the United States in 1969. Before returning to the World Bank in 1971, he was employed by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and served as a consultant to Maurice Strong, Director of the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA).

Upon his return to the Bank, Kuczynski was named Chief Economist of the Central America and Caribbean Department (CACDR). In 1973 he moved to the new Policy Planning and Program Review Department (EPR, then, after 1977, PPR) where he was named the chief of the Policy Planning Division (EPRPP, then PPRPP), a position he held until the fall of 1973. The Policy Planning Division analyzed the Bank's development policy structure and sought to identify gaps, weaknesses and opportunities for innovation within the Bank.

Between 1972 and 1973, Kuczynski was also a member of the Bank's Research Committee. The Committee's main function was to review all Bank research projects and to advise the Chairman, who had ultimate responsibility for approving research projects, on their merit. It also developed an overall research program, setting priorities and initiating research proposals.

Kuczynski left the Bank again in the fall of 1973. Between 1973 and 1975 he served as the Vice President of Kuhn, Loeb and Co., an international investment bank headquartered in New York, New York and then as an adviser to the Central Bank of Venezuela.

In 1975 Kuczynski returned to the World Bank Group as economic adviser in the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and left in 1977.

Since departing the Bank, Kuczynski has also worked in international banking, private equity, and non-governmental organizations and has authored and coedited a number of books on Latin American development.

Kuczynski has also served in a variety of posts in the Peruvian national government, including: Minister of Energy and Mines (July 1980 to August 1982); Minister of Economy and Finance (July 2001 to July 2002 and February 2004 to August 2005); and Prime Minister (August 2005 to July 2006). After an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 2011, Kuczynski was elected the president of Peru in 2016.

Jochen Kraske joined the World Bank in 1964. He was chief of the India Division in the South Asia Department, 1971-1975; twice chief of the Bank's Resident Mission in New Delhi, 1975-1979 and 1988-1991; Director of the Country Program Department of East Africa, 1979-1987; and Director of the Country Department for Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka in the South Asia Region, 1991-1992. He served as World Bank Historian, 1993-1997, and retired in 1997.

Barber Benjamin Conable (1922-2003), the World Bank Group's seventh President, was a career politician and had no substantial Wall Street experience. Conable had a background in law, graduating at Cornell University Law School in 1948. After serving in both World War II and Korea, he established a practice in New York. He later opted for a political career, first becoming a Republican member of the New York state senate, and then, in 1964, a member of the US Congress, where he served ten consecutive two-year terms.

Conable's first order of business upon becoming President in 1986 was to identify ways to trim the Bank's budget. It was decided that a major reorganization of the Bank would be the most effective way to create significant savings. An external consulting firm was hired to analyze the Bank's operations and an internal committee was appointed to implement the changes. The most significant result of the 1987 reorganization was the Country Department, rather than the Regional Vice Presidencies, became the basic program and budget unit. Two new Senior Vice Presidents for Policy, Planning and Research (PPRSV) and Administration (SVPAD), were also created. The latter became the Senior Vice President, External Affairs and Administration (EAASV) in 1988.

The ongoing debt crisis was another issue that Conable faced upon his arrival at the Bank. Initiatives such as the U.S.-sponsored Baker Plan attempted to alleviate debt in developing countries by urging financial institutions and commercial lenders to lend new monies to countries engaged in acceptable structural reforms. However, these initiatives found limited success. Initially, Conable and the Bank rejected calls for debt relief, but by 1987 a new debt-restructuring package to reduce existing debt and supplement new lending was announced by the Bank. The debt crisis contributed to increased cooperation between the Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), resulting in jointly authored policy framework papers and, in 1989, a Concordat that allocated primary responsibilities between the two institutions.

Conable attempted to address criticism of the Bank's impact on the environment by strengthening environmental safeguards. An Environment Department was created in the 1987 reorganization. Its responsibilities were to review and direct research and policy on the environment and to conduct regular discussion with borrowers on the environmental implications of proposed projects. In addition, technical departments located in each regional vice presidencybegan reviewing projects for environmental soundness and were responsible for assisting in the implementation of specific environmental measures. The Bank also became involved in a number of highly visible international environmental efforts, including, alongside the United Nations, the creation of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) in 1990. Another result of this increased focus on the environment was a more open and collaborative relationship between the Bank and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs).

Conable also played a role in enlarging the role of other sectors focused on the social dimensions of development. He appointed a task force of senior staff to review the Bank's poverty programs and emphasized the connection between women and development by increasing the responsibility of the nascent Women in Development sector.

International Finance Corporation (IFC) operations continued to increase under Conable. It continued expansion into Africa and South Asia and into new areas of activity, such ascapital market development, corporate restructuring, and assistance to small and medium enterprises. Notably, the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), which was conceived during A. W. Clausen's term as World Bank Group President, was launched in 1988. Its purpose was to insure private investors against political risks and thereby promote private investments in developing countries.

The Conable tenure at the Bank witnessed the breakdown of the Soviet bloc and the transformation of Eastern European economies. The World Bank along with the IMF played a central role in the economic transition. The Bank participated in a comprehensive needs assessment of the Soviet economy. A World Bank office was opened in Moscow in 1991 and Conable traveled to Eastern Europe to offer advice and assistance, signing the first loan agreement with Poland in 1990.

Conable instituted a change to the senior management structure in 1987, replacing the former Managing Committee with the new Policy Committee. The new Committee, which served as the principle advisory body to the President, was comprised of: the President; Chairman; Senior Vice President, Operations; Senior Vice President, Finance; Senior Vice President, Policy, Planning and Research; Senior Vice President, Administration (later the Senior Vice President, External Affairs and Administration); the Executive Vice President of the IFC; and the Bank's General Counsel.

Conable served a single term as President, leaving the Bank in August 1991.

Prior to becoming the World Bank Group's 6th President, Alden Winship "Tom" Clausen (1923-2013) had a long and successful career at Bank of America. After graduating with a law degree from the University of Minnesota in 1949, Clausen joined the BankAmerica Corporation. He was a senior vice president by age 42 and two years later became responsible for the Bank's international lending business. In 1970 he became president and CEO.

When Clausen became World Bank Group President in July 1981, the international economy was deep in recession. This contributed to a growing debt crisis in developing countries. It was also a period characterized by increased skepticism towards foreign aid, particularly by the Ronald Reagan administration in the United States. Clausen's response to these challenges involved an increased reliance on free markets and private sector institutions. He also recognized the need for the Bank to increase cooperation with other agencies when appropriate. 
Early in his presidency, Clausen announced three priority areas which would receive special attention during his tenure: agriculture; energy; and Sub-Saharan Africa. Energy sector projects, in particular, were prioritized, as Clausen saw an urgent need to promote new supplies of energy. He announced an immediate 25% increase in energy lending, including substantial amounts for hydroelectric power projects, thus becoming the single most important area for Bank lending during his tenure. With regard to Sub-Saharan Africa, Clausen endorsed and implemented many of the suggestions found in a 1979 Bank study that examined barriers to economic progress in Africa. Recommendations included doubling the amount of aid to Africa to support infrastructure development and agriculture and energy sector funding. It also recommended structural redesign of economic policies in order to promote efficiency, encourage better market incentives for production, reduce subsidies to uncompetitive industries, and promote exports. Related to these objectives and in response to the ongoing debt crisis, the Bank increased funding of sectoral and structural adjustment, committing a total of $12.5 billion for adjustment operations by the time Clausen left the Bank in 1986. 
The support of structural reforms required an expansion of the Bank's analytical work. The Bank under Clausen and chief economist Anne Krueger emphasize trade liberalization and became heavily involved in helping governments investigate their economic problems and identify available solutions. 
In order to stimulate capital flows from other sources, the World Bank Group under Clausen increased its focus on cofinancing. Clausen turned to export credit agencies and commercial banks with the intention of helping developing countries enter into capital markets. He also increased the number and frequency of aid consortia and consultative groups and endorsed the "B-loan", a loan product that allowed IBRD participation in commercially structured loans. Recognizing that private investment was constrained by investors' inability to manage political risk, the Bank, under the leadership of general counsel Ibrahim Shihata, began planning the formation of an investment insurance agency. The resulting Multilateral Investments Guarantee Agency (MIGA) came into existence in 1988. 
As President, Clausen presided over extensive reorganizations of the Bank's economic analysis, research, and policy activities, as well as its Central Projects staff. He also reorganized the way in which his senior management team communicated with him. Immediately upon his appointment, Clausen established a Managing Committee consisting only of the heads of each complex: the Senior Vice Presidents of Operations (Ernest Stern) and Finance (Moeen Qureshi); the Vice Presidents of Development Policy (Hollis Chenery followed by Anne Krueger in 1982), External Relations (Munir P. Benjenk) and Administration (Martin J.W.M. Paijmans); the General Counsel (Heribert Golsong); and the Secretary (Timothy T. Thahane). This Committee functioned as a team making basic decisions with regard to development policy strategy, resource acquisition and allocation, operating policies and program planning as well as administrative and financial policies. It was also charged with an immediate review of the Bank's programming, budgeting and control processes. 

In 1982 Clausen also established three subcommittees reporting to the aforementioned Managing Committee. These included subcommittees for Operations, Finance, and Personnel and Administration. These subcommitteeswere chaired by the two Senior Vice Presidents for Operations and Finance and by the Vice President, Personnel and Administration and met whenever necessary to review matters under their jurisdiction.

The President's Council, a holdover from the presidencies of George Woods and Robert McNamara, continued to meet on a weekly basis and provided a forum for the exchange of views and ideas. In 1982, however, it was replaced by the Senior Management Council; the Council met once monthly and served as a forum for the exchange of views and ideas among all vice presidents. Clausen served a single term as President, leaving the Bank in June 1986.

John Jay McCloy (1895-1989) was named president of the World Bank on February 28, 1947 and took office on March 17, 1947. McCloy's appointment followed a three month search for a successor to the Bank's first president, Eugene I. Meyer, who had resigned on December 4, 1946.

Prior to joining the Bank, McCloy spent twenty years practicing corporate law in New York and Europe. He also served as Assistant Secretary of War under Henry L. Stimson in the Roosevelt administration during World War II. By the timehe was nominated as World Bank President, McCloy had a broad network of relationships in both business and government spheres.

McCloy entered the Bank during a time of great uncertainty for the organization. Internally, the issue of who would command executive authority - the Bank president or the executive directors - had yet to be resolved. Externally, the World Bank was viewed with skepticism by many. Impatience for lending operations to begin, uncertainty regarding Bank capital, and questions about leadership were some of the more common concerns expressed by government officials, Wall Street, and the media.

 The issues of executive authority and the Bank's relationship with the United States government were largely resolved during the negotiation of McCloy's nomination. McCloy demanded resolution to the issue of executive authority as a condition of his acceptance of the position. His demands for executive authority were met and were reflected in a June 1947 report of the Board's Committee on Organization. The report stipulated that the Executive Directors were responsible for policy decisions but that recommendations for these decisions must come from Bank management. It also described how Bank operations were under the purview of the president and Bank staff; management would decide whether a loan application was to be pursued and would determine the framework for negotiations. Only after the completion of negotiations would the president submit a loan proposal to the Board for approval. 
The relationship between the Bank president and the United States government was also resolved as a condition of McCloy's acceptance of the Bank's presidency. McCloy demanded that the Bank and the Office of the President not be subject to the dictates of the U.S. government and the American Executive Director. A related condition of McCloy's acceptance of the Bank presidency was that Eugene R. Black would be named the new Executive Director representing the United States. 
While applications for lending had been received prior to his arrival, the signing of the first World Bank loan on May 7, 1947 didn't take place until after McCloy took office. The loan, for $250 million, was made to Credit National, a semipublic French corporation, for post-Second World War reconstruction. Policies related to interest rates, security requirements, and fund dispersal were established during the preparation and negotiation of this and other early loans.

The majority of Bank lending under McCloy was to European countries in support of their reconstruction following the War. However, McCloy foresaw and supported a quick transition to bilateral aid for reconstruction purposes, allowing the Bank to increase investment in the poorer and post-colonial countries of Latin America, Africa and Asia. The Bank's first development loan was made during McCloy's time in office. On March 25, 1948 Chile signed a loan agreement for $15 million to fund hydroelectric and agricultural development.

McCloy also presided over the Bank's first bond offering. The offering of $250 million took place in July of 1947. The offering was deemed a success, as it was substantially oversubscribed.

As the Bank was still a relatively small institution under McCloy's leadership, it maintained a simple organizational structure. Robert Garner, who had joined the Bank at the same time that McCloy was named Bank President, served as the lone Vice President throughout McCloy's tenure. Senior managers, including department directors, had regular and direct access to the President on an informal basis.

McCloy's resignation from the Bank was announced on May 18, 1949.

George David Woods (1901-1982) was born in Boston in 1901. He entered the banking industry immediately upon completing high school and only attended night school at his employers' urging. During this early period, Woods made his talents evident and was promoted rapidly. By the 1940s he was employed by the First Boston Corporation, one of the largest investment banking firms in the United States; by 1951 he was chairman of its board. Woods had considerable involvement with the World Bank Group prior to becoming its President. First Boston was one of two banking firms to manage the Bank's early bond issues. Soon after Woods began participating in missions for the Bank to southeast Asia where he assisted in the development of lending programs and explored the possibility of establishing private development finance companies. Woods was also involved in the Suez Canal settlement mediated by the Bank, and the International Finance Corporation's (IFC) international advisory committee.

Woods was named World Bank Group president in January 1963. Woods is often given credit for continuing the Bank's evolution from a more straightforward financial institution to a development institution. During his tenure, the Bank began analyzing the broader factors that hindered growth in developing countries, such as trade barriers, external debt, lack of diversification, weak institutions, shortages of skills, and ineffective economic and financial policies. As a result of this expansion in focus, more economists were hired by theBank and their importance was increased. Specifically, Woods appointed Irving Friedman, formerly of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), as the Economic Adviser to the President.

In addition to emphasizing the role of economists, Woods looked to strengthen the younger professional staff in the institution. The Bank typically recruited staff in mid-career, but in 1963 the Junior Professional Program (later the Young Professional Program, or YPP) was instituted as a means of recruiting graduates from leading universities.

Under Woods, the Bank continued to expand its lending in the sectors of agriculture and education. Both of these areas were approached with a focus on early intervention, meaning involvement in activities that had a more direct impact, such as farm credit, livestock production, seed improvement, and training and extension work in the agriculture sector secondary and vocational schools in the education sector. Woods also increased focus on the industry sector. This created an increased role for the IFC and involved the transfer of industrial projects from the Bank to the IFC.

Woods promoted the concept of aid coordination to better identify foreign assistance from various sources. This involved the creation of the first Bank-organized consultative groups. It also led to a closer relationship with the United Nations and its specialized agencies such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizations (UNESCO). The Bank also served as executive agency for many UN Development Programme (UNDP)-financed studies.

During Woods' tenure the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) was established. Its purpose was to calm the fears of foreign investors who were hesitant about investing in developing countries. ICSID's primary functions include the resolution of investment disputes and providing assurance for foreign private investors.

One of Woods' final accomplishments was the instigation of the "Grand Assize" of experts called together to examine the state of development and to propose to political leaders and the public at large the steps necessary for maintaining progress. The commission was headed by Lester Pearson, former Prime Minister of Canada, and came into effect only after Woods' departure from the Bank.

The organization of the Bank did not change considerably during Woods' tenure as President. One significant move made by Woods was the formalization of the President's Council. Chaired by thePresident, it consisted of senior staff who served closest to Woods, including: Vice Presidents Burke Knapp, Geoffrey Wilson, Simon Aldewereld (appointed in 1965), and Mohammad Shoaib (who replaced Wilson in 1966); Economic Adviser to the President Irving Friedman; General Counsel Aron Broches; and Richard Demuth, who had served in various capacities during his time at the Bank but who headed the Development Services Department (DSD) under Woods. The Council met daily to advise the President on matters related to the management of the Bank.

Woods served a single term as President, departing the Bank in March 1968.

Eugene Robert Black (1898-1992) became President of the World Bank in July 1949. The Bank was still in its infancy, having opened its doors only three years previous. Its purpose was not yet widely known to the public nor, within the Bank was it completely determined. The Bank was still more focused on post-war reconstruction in Europe than the development of the poorer, post-colonial countries. Of the ten loans it had made prior to Black's presidency, eight were to the recovering countries in Western Europe. The Bank was a relatively modest institution in terms of its operations; while the two bond issues under Black's predecessor, John McCloy, were perceived as successful, they had only raised about $250 million.

Previous to his affiliation with the World Bank, Eugene R. Black (1898-1992) was an investment banker, employed primarily by the Chase National Bank in New York City. Prior to becoming Bank President, Black served two years as the United States Executive Director. Black's position as U.S. Executive Director was offered to him as part of the conditions placed by then incoming Bank President John J. McCloy. During his time as U.S. Executive Director, Black worked closely with McCloy while exploiting his extensive network of contacts to inform outsiders of the mission and processes of the Bank and to improve the institution's credit.

One of Black's first orders of business as Bank President was to further increase the Bank's credit and to expand its roster of available creditors. Until 1951, the Bank had raised funds exclusively in the United States. That year, however, the Bank made a bond offering on the London stock market, followed by another issue in the Netherlands in 1954. These and other bond issues were considered successful and it was not long before the Bank had established a reputation as a financially sound institution with an impeccable credit record.

The World Bank's transition from an institution initially focused primarily on lending for the reconstruction of Western European countries following the Second World War to one focused on the plight of developing countries took place primarily under Black's leadership. With this transition came a change in the types and objectives of Bank loans. The Bank's early loans to European countries were exclusively program loans which supported a variety of initiatives. With Black's encouragement, loans to developing countries were primarily project focused. The process of selecting projects for funding were based on an analysis of potential economic benefits. Black also emphasized a carefully prepared development plan for each country with funding provided for the projects of highest priority.

Black was known to be a masterful negotiator with strong skills in diplomacy and he used these qualities in the negotiation of financial disputes between a number of countries and their creditors. While the origin of Black and the Bank's role in the majority of these disputes arose from parties approaching the Bank for help, it was Black who approached Indiaand Pakistan in order to help resolve the issue of the allocation of water resources in the Indus Basin. Negotiations lasted nine years and led to a treaty between India and Pakistan. Black and Bank representatives also participated in negotiations related to claims made in the nationalization of the Suez Canal and the nationalization of the Iranian Oil Company.

In 1956, the Bank opened an affiliate organization to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) that would support investment opportunities in private enterprise in developing countries. The new International Finance Corporation (IFC) was led by former IBRD Vice President Robert Garner. Black also oversaw the creation of another IBRD affiliate in 1961: the International Development Association (IDA). The IDA offered concessional financing featuring long-term low interest rate loans, thus making assistance available to all World Bank members regardless of their income level and debt-servicing capacity. In addition to increasing the number of World Bank clients, the creation of the IDA also led to a diversification of sector focus, as the Bank's lending scope grew to include agriculture, water, and education projects.

Black generally distanced himself from administrative responsibilities and the day-to-day operations of the Bank. His lone VP from 1949 to 1956, Robert Garner, oversaw the organization and operation of the Bank. After Garner left the position to become head of the IFC in 1956, Black named three new VPs: Davidson Sommers, who continued to serve as the Bank's General Counsel and was responsible for finance and fiscal operations and administrative matters; W. A. B. Iliff, who was assigned responsibility for relations with the member governments and the Executive Directors, liaison with international agencies, annual meetings programs and information programs, and the Economic Development Institute (EDI); and J. Burke Knapp, who supervised the operational departments, the Technical Operations Department (TOD) and economic research activities. During his time as Bank President, Black also relied heavily on assistants Richard Demuth and Harold Graves, who looked after public relations and wrote many of Black's speeches. While Bank staff increased substantially during Black's tenure, it was still small enough that senior managers could have regular access to the President.

The lone reorganization of Bank operations that occurred during Black's tenure showed his reliance on generalist-practitioners and project staff for decision making and project design rather than on the Bank's economists. Between 1946 and 1952, the Economic Department (ECD) which consisted primarily of economists, was responsible for functional and geographical analyses and maintained a degree of autonomy separate from Bank operations. The 1952 reorganization dissolved the ECD, moving country specialist staff into one of the three new Area Departments responsible for World Bank-member country relations. Sector-oriented staff of the ECD formed the new Technical Operations Department (TOD) and was placed in charge of project appraisal and supervision. This organizational structure implemented in 1952 was maintained for the next 20 years.

By the time Black left office in 1962, the Bank had raised over $4 billion through seventy-seven borrowing operations in the United States and Europe, and had more than doubled the number of staff. The Bank had funded 330 projects in 60 countries, and expanded its operational capabilities through the creation of the IFC and IDA and subsequently increased its clientele. And finally, the Bank was increasingly viewed by both world leaders and the financial community as an established, principled, and necessary institution.