Irving S. Friedman was born on in New York City in 1915. After graduating from Columbia University, Friedman began his career as an economist in the office of the Secretary of the Treasury. He joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1946 where became a senior department director and headed missions to member countries. In 1950 Friedman became director of the Fund's Exchange Restrictions Department.

In October 1964, Friedman joined the World Bank. He was appointed by President George S. Woods as the first Economic Adviser to the President and was placed in the President's immediate staff. Friedman supervised the Economics Department and the Director of Special Economic Studies. He also oversaw the Economic Program Department, the Computing Activities Department, and the Development Research Center. Friedman was succeeded by Hollis B. Chenery as Economic Adviser to the President in October and left the Bank soon after.

After his time at the World Bank, Friedman joined Citibank in Manhattan in 1974 and First Boston Corporation in 1989. In the 1980s he held senior advisory positions with the African, Asian, and Inter-American Development Banks in addition to other public and commercial financial institutions. Throughout the 1970s and 80s, Friedman taught at a variety of academic institutions, including Yale University, the University of Virginia, and Fordham University. He also lectured abroad as well as at the Bank's Economic Development Institute (EDI, now the World Bank Institute [WBI]).

Irving Friedman died in November 1989.

The operations function of the World Bank has, in one form or another, been organized by geographic region throughout the Bank's history. The units responsible for World Bank lending and technical assistance have changed frequently in name and status since the Bank began operations in 1946. The history of the Europe and Central Asia Region (ECA) is complex primarily because of its previous integration with the Middle East and North Africa Region (MNA). Between 1965 and 1991, the countries within these two regions formed a single regional department/vice presidency called the Europe, Middle East, and North Africa Region (EMN or EMENA). Since 1991, the area covered by ECA countries has remained constant. As of 2016, ECA countries included: Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Georgia, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyz Republic, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.

1946 - 1952

Upon the Bank's opening in 1946, operational lending was executed out of the Loan Department (LOD) led by Charles C. Pineo. The LOD was responsible for developing loan operations policy, receiving and investigating loan inquiries, presenting loan inquiries to Bank management for consideration, and negotiating loans. The organizational structure of LOD fluctuated over its seven year history but was, for the majority of the time, organized geographically. The Bank's focus in these early years was on post-World War II reconstruction and, in particular, European countries. This is evident in the initial divisional organization of the LOD. Of the seven original divisions, four dealt with Europe and two with the Western Hemisphere.

This strong focus on Europe in the early years of the Bank is evident. The Bank's first Resident Mission was established in Paris, France in 1947 and a number of the Bank's first visits by its senior staff, including Research Director Leonard Rist, Treasurer Crena de Iongh, and Vice President Robert Garner, were to Europe. Almost all of the Bank's first loan applications were received from European countries: Czechoslovakia, Denmark, France, Luxembourg, and Poland (the lone exception being Chile). This resulted in the signing of the World Bank's first loan: on May 9, 1947 World Bank Executive Directors approved a loan for $250 million to Credit National of France (P037383) for reconstruction of its economic, finance, and trade sectors. Three loans to European countries followed before a non-European country, Chile, received Bank funding.

With the appointment of W. A. Iliff as Director of the Loan Department in 1948, LOD's seven divisions were briefly consolidated into two: the European and United Kingdom Division and the Latin American, Asiatic and African Division. Then, in November of 1948, divisions were briefly abolished altogether, as loans were assigned to loan officers on an ad hoc basis. In 1950, LOD was again divided into three geographical areas: Latin America Division; Asia and the Middle East Division; and European Division.

Parallel to the LOD was the Economic Department (ECD), which conducted sector analysis and research work. Between 1946 and 1952, the ECD was responsible for both functional and geographic analyses, i.e. general economic studies and country specific studies. ECD supported the LOD and its loan administration and advised member countries on their economic and sector development plans. The ECD also liaised with international organizations on economic research. It also provided staff for Bank missions to countries from the Bank's Washington, DC headquarters to conduct both economic and project-focused research. Like the LOD, the organization of the ECD reflected the Bank's focus on post-war Europe. The Department initially consisted of three area divisions and an Economic Technology Division responsible for specialized sector studies. In August 1948 a new organizational structure featuring two area divisions was installed. Area Division I was responsible for Europe and Area Division II was divided into four sections that dealt with: Central America; South America; Asia; and Africa and the Middle East. In March 1950 another reorganization divided the Department into an advisory staff and an area staff, the latter consisting of three divisions of which Europe and Africa was one.

1952 - 1972

When the World Bank opened, its primary focus had been the reconstruction and revitalization of European countries devastated by World War II. However, as other sources of investment became available to war torn European countries, the Bank quickly shifted its focus to non-European countries. Largely due to the resulting expansion in operations in Latin America, Africa, and Asia, a Bank-wide reorganization took effect in September of 1952. The new operational structure endured for the next twenty years. The major feature of the reorganization was the merging of LOD staff with country-related staff from the ECD to form three distinct geographical Area Departments: Europe, Africa and Australasia (EAA); Asia and Middle East (AME); and Western Hemisphere (WHM). These units were primarily responsible for World Bank-member country relations. Functions included: loan policy and plan development; country development program appraisal and review; preparation of proposed loans; and country economic monitoring.

There was no formal divisional structure within EAA. Note that, in 1952 when the Department was initially formed, only two EAA countries were not located in Europe: Australia and South Africa. The Department was led by A. S. G. Hoar between 1952 and 1955. Sydney Raymond Cope became Department Director in June of 1955. All three Area Departments reported to Vice President Robert Garner from 1952 to 1956. After Garner became President of the new International Finance Corporation (IFC) in 1956, the Area Departments reported to J. Burke Knapp and William Iliff.

As part of the 1952 reorganization, the sector-oriented staff of the former ECD moved to the Technical Operations Department (TOD) in the new Area Departments and was placed in charge of project appraisal and supervision. Specifically, the TOD was responsible for: the appraisal of proposed projects; advising Area Departments on proposed projects and assisting in negotiations; supervising approved projects; assisting borrowers in procurement efforts; and monitoring and reporting on member countries' sector economies.

By 1962, a division of the Europe, Africa and Australasia Area Department (EAA) was necessary as a result of the dramatic increase in membership by African countries. Two new departments were created out of the former EAA: the Department of Operations - Europe (EUP); and the Department of Operations - Africa (AFR). EUP functional responsibilities were the same as its predecessor and it did not have a formal divisional structure. Sydney Cope became the Director of the new EUP and oversaw lending operations with 20 European countries, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.

In 1965 the World Bank implemented a major reorganization of country groupings in its regional departments and EUP was significantly impacted. The countries previously in EUP were combined with Middle Eastern countries formerly located in the Department of Operations - Europe and Middle East Department (EME). In addition, five northern African countries (Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco) were also included In EME. Functional responsibilities of the new department remained unchanged from predecessor departments. Sydney Cope served as Director of EME.

The new combination of European and Middle Eastern countries was briefly undone in 1967 when EME was divided into two separate departments: Europe Department (EUR); and Middle East and North Africa Department (MNA). European, Middle Eastern, and North African countries were again reunited during a significant reorganization in 1968, forming the new Europe, Middle East and North Africa Department (EMN). Thus began an uninterrupted period of 23 years during which Middle Eastern and North African countries would be combined with European countries in a single department or Vice Presidency. The new EMN was led by Michael L. Lejeune; he was replaced by Munir P. Benjenk in 1970. The Department was initially divided into five divisions roughly based on geography. European countries roughly made up two divisions while Middle Eastern and North African countries formed the other three.

1972 - 1987

A massive, Bank-wide reorganization was initiated by World Bank President Robert S. McNamara in 1972. As part of the reorganization, the geographic organization of the regional units was again altered. The seven departments that made up the Area Departments were elevated to five Regional Vice Presidencies (RVP). However, the composition of EMN was not altered. All RVPs reported to the new Senior Vice President, Operations (SVPOP).

A more significant aspect of the reorganization, however, was the integration of the former Technical Operations Department (renamed the Projects Division [PRJ] in 1965) with the new RVPs. The period between 1952 and 1972 had been characterized by frequent reorganizations of the geographically-based area units responsible for country liaison and loan policy and negotiation. However, the division of functional responsibility between these units and TOD/PRJ was maintained. But in 1972, in an attempt to more effectively fuse country knowledge and sectoral skills, most of the Bank's operational project work was moved from the Projects Department to the five new Regional Vice Presidencies. Staff from the former PRJ were distributed into the Regional Vice Presidencies and were organized into sector-oriented Project Departments and were known as Central Projects Staff. Thus, rather than one Projects Department that supported projects in countries on an ad hoc basis, each RVP would maintain its own projects staff. Each RVP was, in turn,given "line authority" to analyze, decide and act on country development operations. Each RVP was responsible for planning and executing IBRD/IDA development assistance programs subject to the overall framework of Bank policies, priorities, and operating procedures. The RVPs created regional plans and budgets, ensured the effective implementation of approved plans, created country economic and sector reports, and developed and implemented loan, credit, technical assistance, and other forms of development projects. The RVPs were also responsible for maintaining sound relations with governments of assigned countries and with aid organizations and donors involved in those countries.

Upon the completion of the 1972 reorganization, EMN consisted of two Country Program Departments in addition to the new Projects Department. The Country Program Departments were staffed by country economists and loan officers whose primary responsibilities were: conducting area reviews of Bank activities and countries' economic and political developments; formulating country lending and economic and sector work programs and implementing country programs; and reviewing loan applications, negotiating loans, and administering loans.

The Projects Department provided technical assistance and advice to members and borrowers on sectoral issues, country priorities, and project development from identification through implementation and review. It consisted of economists, financial analysts, and sector specialists, and was specifically responsible for: creating sector policies; assisting countries with the identification and preparation of projects; appraising potential projects; assisting the Country Program Departments in loan negotiation and credit agreements; and helping borrowers manage consultants and procurement.

EMN's Project Department was initially divided into five sector-based divisions: Agriculture; Education; Public Utilities; Transportation; and Development Finance Companies. Over the next fifteen years, new divisions were created for sectors such as energy, water, telecommunications, industry, finance, and urban.

Note that not all staff and operational responsibility was transferred from the former PRJ to the RVPs. Staff in sectors too small to decentralize to the five regions continued to provide a complete "operational package" of technical services to the regions. These units, such as the Population and Nutrition sector and Urban Projects sector, were known as Central Operating Projects Departments and were located in thenewly formed Vice President, Central Projects (CPSVP) which, like the RVPs, reported to the SVPOP. In addition, those former PRJ units which had their operational functions dispersed to the RVPs still maintained a core staff in the CPSVP with responsibility for policy and advisory work only.

When EMN became a Vice Presidency in 1972, it contained the following countries: Afghanistan, Egypt, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Italy, Norway, United Kingdom and African Dependencies, Yugoslavia, Austria, Bahrain, Belgium France, Ireland, Jordan, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Qatar, South Africa, Spain, United Arab Emirates, People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, Turkey, Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Greece, Israel, Tunisia, Cyprus, Lebanon, Malta, Oman, Syria, and Yemen Arab Republic. EMN's first Vice President was Munir P. Benjenk. Benjenk served in this position from 1972 through 1980 with the exception of a ten month period between 1975 and 1976 when Willi A. Wapenhans took over. Roger Chaufournier was named EMN Vice President in 1980 and Wapenhans once again assumed the position in 1984.

1987 - 1991

While the composition of the Country Program Departments and Projects Department changed between 1972 and 1987 (most notably with a considerable increase in the number of Projects Department sector divisions), the organization and functions of the RVPs was consistent until 1987. In July of 1987, however, a Bank-wide reorganization under President Barber Conable altered the structure of the RVPsconsiderably. The changes were brought on by a desire to strengthen the Bank's country focus by making the Country Department the basic program and budget unit.

The new Country Departments that replaced the Country Program Departments combined the macro-economic work of the former Country Program Departments and the sector work of the former Regional Projects Department. Each Country Department would consist of a Country Operations Division (COD) as well as multiple Sectoral Operations Divisions (SOD) made up of staff from the former Regional Projects Departments. The COD was composed of lead, country, and specialized economists as well as country officers and was responsible for: liaising with state governments and developing knowledge of issues in the country; preparing and supervising the country's aid strategy; and providing full responsibility for certain country-wide operations such as Structural Adjustment Loans and country economic work. SODs were responsible for overall sectoral strategy and for planning, programming and implementing development activities for the countries in their respective sectoral specialties; this would include the provision of full lending project management as well as lending and sector evaluation work.

Not all staff was moved from each Region's Project Department into the Country Departments' SODs. Those remaining formed a new Regional Technical Department within each RVP. It was responsible for higher level knowledge collection, assessment, and dissemination. The Technical Department, which was organized into sector-focused divisions, was to stimulate innovation in operational work and undertake strategic thinking by providing advice, operational support, regional studies, staff training and the dissemination of materials to Bank staff, donors, and other institutions outside the Bank. The Department would continue to offer operational help in the form of task management, task support, and advice. They would also work closely with Policy, Planning and Research (PPR) staff in conducting regional studies and reviews, and advising on sector policy and research priorities.

During the 1987 reorganization the number of RVPs decreased from six to four but EMN was not affected in this regard. The number of EMN Country Departments did, however, increase from two to four. The allocation of countries between departments during this period and the sector-oriented divisions comprising the country departments changed over time to reflect changing priorities in the region's operations. EMN was led by Vice President Wilfried P. Thalwitz from 1987 to 1989 and Willi A. Wapenhans from 1990 to 1991.

1991 - 1996

The fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War had significant implications for the World Bank and its organization. Beginning in July 1990, the World Bank, in cooperation with G7 countries and other international organizations, participated in a series of studies on the Soviet Union's economy. (See the Documents & Reports website for access to World Bank authored reports on the various aspects of the region's transition and the World Bank's involvement.) Only a month after the Soviet Union dissolved in December 1991, the government of the Russian Federation formally applied for membership in the World Bank. During 1992 the fifteen republics of the former Soviet Union also applied for membership. The World Bank subsequently engaged in one of the largest operations in its history as it established working relations with its new members, set up new resident missions and offices, and prepared and negotiated new projects.

A reorganization of the Bank's regional vice presidencies and a reallocation of countries was deemed necessary as a result of these developments. In 1991 the Europe, Middle East, and North Africa Regional Vice Presidency (EMN) was divided into two new RVPs: the Europe and Central Asia Vice Presidency (ECA) and the Middle East and North Africa Vice Presidency (MNA). During this reorganization the Asia Regional Vice Presidency [ASI] was also divided into separate east and south Regional Vice Presidencies, increasing the number of RVPs from four to six). ECA maintained the same functions and internal organization as its predecessor unit. Note, however, that ECA and the new MNA continued to share a single Technical Department. Composed of various sector-oriented divisions, the Technical Department maintained responsibility for sector knowledge dissemination, research and development, and operational review and advice.

As a result of the G7 Summit held in Tokyo in October 1992, the World Bank was asked to chair consultative group meetings to assess public investment and technical assistance for the former Soviet Union republics. The Bank agreed and convened the first consultative group beginning with Kazakhstan in 1992. The operations of the consultative groups varied according to its different circumstances but in most cases the Bank's responsibilities were, as defined in 1965: providing periodic, comprehensive reports onthe country's development possibilities, problems, and performance as a basis for the consultative group's deliberations; analyzing the country's aid requirements and problematic debt commitments, and recommending types and terms of aid; assisting the recipient government to prepare or revise a development program or advise on problems in its implementation; assisting in identifying projects and other technical assistance and arranging for feasibility studies; and advising participants on which sectors andprojects deserve priority for external funding. The role of the group's chairman, typically the Area or Country Director, encouraged dialogue at meetings and coordinated donor efforts to meet the country's financing needs. The department also drafted the minutes or summary of proceedings and the list of delegates of group meetings. These functions essentially remained unchanged through 1999.

A subsequent reorganization in 1993 strengthened the Country Departments' SODs through unit reorganization and atransfer of staff from the Regional Technical Departments to the SODs. The Technical Departments were greatly reduced in size and were restructured to reflect the emphasis on sectoral and thematic responsibilities of the SODs. The Technical Departments operational support function was consequently reduced.

Wilfred Thalwitz was named Vice President of the new ECA in 1991 and would hold the position through the end of 1995.

1996 - 2014

Another reorganization in 1996-97 modified the changes made to the RVPs in 1987 and 1993. The RVP continued to be responsible for all aspects of country development assistance for its member countries, including: country assistance strategy; lending operations; technical assistance operations; and economic and sector work. The primary objective of the reorganization was to deepen the country focus and responsiveness to client needs. This was accomplished in a number of ways. The most striking changes concerned the new Country Management Units (CMUs) which replaced the formerCountry Departments. The CMUs were smaller than their predecessor (that is, each was responsible for a smaller number of countries) while their number correspondingly increased. The internal reorganization of ECA resulted in an increase from four Country Departments in November 1996 to eleven CMUs in January 1998.

In addition, an increased decentralization of CMU staff and country directors from Bank headquarters in Washington to locations within client countries was undertaken. At the same time, a strengthening of authority with regard to strategy and budget was given to the country directors. The CMUs continued to be responsible for overall preparation and supervision of the country's assistance strategy, full lending project management, and evaluation of lending and sector work.

During the reorganization, the former Technical Departments were changed into Sector or Technical Families. The role of the Technical Families, which consisted of sector and project economists and selected specialist staff, was to formulate knowledge on technical subjects and best practice, and to suggest innovation through research and development. From this point on, ECA ceased sharing its technical units with MNA.

Johannes Linn was named Vice President of ECA in 1996 and served in this position until 2003 at which time Shigeo Katsu took over the position. Philippe Le Houerou replaced Katsu in 2009 and he, in turn, was replaced by Laura Tuck in the fall of 2013.

2014 - Present

In order to stimulate the sharing of knowledge and best practices across the Bank, President Jim Kim introduced a Bank-wide reorganization in 2014 that removed sector staff from the Regional Vice Presidencies and placed them in one of fourteen Global Practices (GPs) or five Cross-Cutting Solution Areas (CCSAs). The GPs are responsible for each of the major thematic areas that the Bank supports through projects, such as agriculture, water, and education. Each GP functions as a vertical pillar of technical expertise and is responsible for: defining the strategic direction and the World Bank's activity in their respective sector; developing and deploying expertise globally; delivering integrated solutions to client countries; and capturing and leveraging knowledge in their respective fields. The CCSAs, on the other hand, serve as units that cut across GPs horizontally providing leadership in areas such as climate change, gender, and public-private partnerships, and focusing on Bank-wide strategic goals and directions.

After the 2014 reorganization, the Regional Vice Presidencies exclusive function became overall client engagement. Specifically, each RVP: sets and drives regional strategic direction; offers development solutions to clients; agrees on work program and budget with GPs; recruits expert GP staff to meet client needs; manages corporate and other stakeholder relationships; and oversees country programs. Each RVP retained multiple Country Management Unit (CMUs) responsible for one or more countries. The CMU is the primary interface with the country andis responsible for ensuring global solutions are applied to the local context. Specifically, the CMU: identifies client challenges and opportunities; sets country strategy and manages selectivity; develops work programs and provides solutions; manages client and stakeholder relationships; and manages the country office.

Cyril Muller replaced Laura Tuck as ECA Vice President on July 1, 2015.

Between 1946 and 1974, the World Bank had between one and four vice presidents whose responsibility was the Bank as a whole. During the reorganization in 1972, vice presidencies were created with specific areas of oversight, and when Sir Denis Rickett left the Bank in 1974 the era of general vice presidents was over.

In late 1991, following the appointment of Lewis T. Preston as Bank President, Managing Director positions were created to provide administrative assistance to the President of the Bank. Reporting directly to the President, the Managing Directors each had an area of oversight responsibility, but as a whole they formed the kind of broad oversight team that the general vice presidents had provided. The number of Managing Directors ranged from three to five, with varying areas of emphasis.

The Human Development Network (HDN) was created in 1997 as part of President Wolfensohn's reorganization of the World Bank. The reorganization's objective was to strike a better balance between country focus and sectoral excellence. It was also motivated by recognition that the Bank's development programs were excessively driven by a culture of lending. The need to increase attention towards client needs and the quality of results was addressed.

To facilitate sharing of expertise and knowledge, the Bank established networks that linked Bank-wide communities of staff working in the same field across organizational boundaries and with external partners. The networks were intended to link staff working in the same sectors throughout the Bank, whether the staff was located in the Regional Vice Presidencies, sectoral departments, Independent Evaluation Group (IEG, formerly the Operations Evaluation Group [OED]), World Bank Institute (WBI), or Development Economics (DEC). The objectives and responsibilities of the networks were many: reduce fragmentation; increase information flow; set priorities; manage quality; run the information system; consolidate external partnerships; vet staff promotions; and disseminate best practices. The work programs of network staff focused on:

• Global knowledge - putting the best development knowledge in the hands of Bank task teams; ensuring that the knowledge base was accessible to external clients; and contributing to the growth of the knowledge base.

• Enhanced skills - developing and providing content to training courses; establishing professional and technical standards for professional development.

• Shared strategies - assisting regional and central units to develop a common sector agenda, and ensuring that skills are effectively deployed across the entire network. Network leadership assumed responsibility for global programs, sector strategy development and evaluation, strategic partnerships, and learning and dissemination. * Best teams and best practices - improving the Bank's flexibility and mobility by building stronger task teams and delivering higher quality products.

• Institutional initiatives - providing substantial support for new Bank-wide initiatives, such as social development, rural development, financial sector, anti-corruption, human resources, and knowledge partnerships.

HDN was the first of three networks to be created in 1997; the others were the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network (PREM) and the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Network (ESSD). Soon after, in 1997-98, the Private Sector and Infrastructure Network (PSI) was created. In 2000-01, the Operation Policy and Strategy Department became the Operations Policy and Country Services Network (OPCS). In 2003-04, the PSI became the Financial and Private Sector Development Network (FPSD) and in 2007 ESSD was combined with Infrastructure to form the Sustainable Development Network (SDN).

HDN is organized in the same way as the other Bank networks. Each network is headed by a Vice President and Head of Network. Under the Vice President is a network council which oversees the entire network. The council is composed of the top network managers from each Region and is responsible for setting the overall agenda for the network and for promoting effective deployment of skills across network units. It deliberates on issues relevant to the functions and objectives of the Network - e.g., strategy; people; knowledge; quality/business process; and external partnerships.

Each thematic network covers several related sectors of development. Each sector department has its own board, with representatives drawn from the Regions as well as from the network itself. The sector boards are accountable to the network council and are supported by a secretariat.

When the HDN was created in 1997, three sector departments from the former Human Development Department (HDD) were placed in the network: Education Team (HDNED); Health, Nutrition, and Population Team (HDNHE); and the Social Protection Team (HDNSP). In2003 an HIV/AIDS Global Program Team (HDNGA) was created and added to HDN. In or around 2004, an advisor position for Children and Youth was created in HDN. Similarly, an advisor position for Development Dialogue was moved to HDN in 2008 or earlier.

Louise Taraldson was born 1907-10-11 in Grafton, North Dakota. In 1931 she briefly married Montford Swan Steele, and on 1935-04-29 she married George D. Woods. The couple had no children. Except during World War II and for the period of George D. Woods' service as President of the World Bank, when they lived in Washington, the Woods lived in New York City. They also maintained a house in Lisbon, Portugal. After Woods' death in 1982, Louise Woods commissioned Robert D. Oliver to write the authorized biography of Woods. Mrs. Woods died on 1986-08-23.

The World Bank first began lending for education projects in fiscal year 1963 with an International Development Association (IDA) credit to Tunisia. The credit financed the extension of a teacher's training college and the construction and expansion of secondary and middle schools, including a new secondary school for girls. In October of 1963, a memorandum from the President on Proposed Bank/IDA Policies in the Field of Education was issued in which the basic policy on education projects was set forth. Initially, the objectives were to promote educational planning, build infrastructure, and attract additional capital investment from other donor agencies.

1963 - 1972

Functional responsibility for education-related activities was first articulated in the organizational structure of the World Bank in early 1963 with the creation of the Education Division in the new Department of Technical Operations. Ricardo Diez-Hochleitner was appointed chief of the Education Division that was charged with appraisal of educational projects submitted for financing, and for assisting countries to plan their educational investments along lines which will promote their economic development. The Technical Operations Department became the Projects Department (PRJ) on January 18, 1965, and was responsible for: the identification, appraisal and supervision of projects; policy formulation and research; and advice in support of the operational activities of the area departments. The Projects Department initially had five subordinate divisions: Agriculture Division (PRJAG); Public Utilities Division (PRJPU); Industry Division (PRJIN); Transportation Division (PRJTP); and Education Division (PRJED).

On November 1, 1968, the Projects Department was terminated and the subordinate divisions were upgraded to the department level. The Education Department (EDP) was one of the newly created departments along with the Departments of Agriculture (AGP), Transportation (TRP), and Public Utilities (PBP). Duncan S. Ballantine was the department's director and served until 1977. Initially, EDP had two divisions: Education Division 1 (EDP1) and Education Division 2 (EDP2). In 1970, Education Division 3 (EDP3) was created.

From 1968 until a Bank-wide reorganization in 1972, the individual Projects Departments reported to the Director of Projects (DRP), and were the primary Bank units responsible for the appraisal, negotiations, and supervision of operational project work in their respective sectors. The departments were specifically responsible for:

• providing advice, conducting research, and monitoring developments in sector issues;

• carrying out sector studies with the objective of identifying projects and determining priorities within sectors;

• preparing policy papers outlining the basic principles and approaches of the Bank relating to project and sector work;

• preparing guidelines and standards;

• appraising proposed projects and supervising projects in execution;

• assisting in the identification and preparation of projects;

• providing operational support in the negotiation and administration of loans and credits; and

• cooperating with other international agencies on programs of common interest.

In 1971, the Bank issued the first formal statement on the priority for education lending in an Education Sector Working Paper.

1972 - 1986

The Bank's massive reorganization in October 1972 attempted to more effectively fuse country knowledge with sector skills. Sectors with a sufficient number of experts and an established lending program, such as the Education Department, were largely decentralized. While maintaining a centralized core staff of department advisors, the majority of department staff were dispersed to regional project departments in newly established Regional Vice Presidencies. The remaining centralized staff made up the sector operating departments and performed advisory services for the Regions. They were responsible for improving and maintaining the quality of Bank lending and related operations through: formulating policies, methodology and guidelines; providing operational support and advice; and managing related programs of recruitment assistance, staff development and education. In the case of the decentralized sectors (Agriculture, Education, Public Utilities, Transportation and non-African Development Finance Companies), specialized personnel assigned to Central Projects Staff were loaned tothe Regions to work under the full operational control and direction of the appropriate regional Division Chief and mission leader for the duration of the assignment.

The Education Department, as well as other sector operating departments, reported to the newly created Vice President, Central Projects (CPSVP). The Vice President, Central Projects, replaced the previous Director, Projects (DRP), and reported to the Senior Vice President, Operations (SVPOP).

The 1974 Sector Working Paper that focused on education was published in December 1974 and introduced a new policy direction that emphasized the urgency for increased financing to improve access of the rural and urban poor to education, making curricula relevant to rural needs, and promoting functional adult literacy.

On July 1, 1977, the Education Department was assigned a new acronym (EDC) and a Training Unit (EDCTR) was established. On July1, 1983, three other units were created: Education Research Program (EDCRS); Education Operational Policy Program (EDCOP); and Education Project Related Training Program (EDCPT).

In late 1977, an External Advisory Panel of international experts in education was appointed by President McNamara to review the status of education in the developing world including the Bank's education and training lending and projects and recommend areas for future action. The panel was chaired by David E. Bell of the Ford Foundation. A report containing conclusions and recommendations was issued in 1978.

In 1979, the Education Sector Policy Paper was released. It emphasized primary education as the foundation of educational development and called for: improved access of girls and rural children to basic education; a limitation of additional investments in secondary and higher education; enhanced instructional quality by providing cost-effective school inputs and teacher training; improving internal efficiency; mobilizing community resources and the mass media; and building local institutions.

In fiscal year 1984, the sector adopted a plan to enhance Bank staff training and introduced four types of courses for sector staff centering on: introductory training for new staff; advanced training on project design and implementation; technical training; and cross-specialization, including education of non-educators.

In July 1984, EDC was renamed the Education and Training Department (EDT). In February 1985, the subordinate units of EDT were given the status of divisions. This resulted in: Research Division (EDTRS); Education Policy Division (EDTEP); and Project Related Training Division (EDTPT). EDTPT was subsequently terminated on July 1, 1986, and EDTEP received a new acronym (EDTPD) on July 30, 1986.

A major policy paper on Sub-Saharan Africa was released on January 27, 1988 titled "Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Adjustment, Revitalization and Evaluation". The policy discussion brought together twenty-five donor governments and agencies in Paris to assist in developing strategies for educational reform in Africa. The paper identified common problems in educational development, provided comparative data and analytical toolsfor developing policies and procedures, and suggested specific policy directions by governments and donors.

1987 - 1996

On July 1, 1987, a Bank-wide reorganization resulted in the termination of almost all organizational units. The Vice Presidency, Sector Policy and Research (PRE), was established in May 1987, and reported to the Senior Vice President, Policy, Planning and Research (PPR). The PRE shed all responsibility for managing operational activities and focused completely on operational support, the formulation of Bank-wide sector policies, and overseeing the ex-post evaluation of Bank-wide sector work and lending. The PRE changed its acronym to PRS on January 1, 1990.

At the time of its creation, the PRE had five departments reporting to it including the new Population and Human Resources Department (PHR). This Department integrated the functions of EDT and the Population, Health and Nutrition Department (PHN); it also assumed responsibility for activities related to 'strengthening the role of women in development.' The Department had four divisions: Education and Employment Division (PHREE); Population, Health and Nutrition Division (PHRHN); Women in Development (PHRWD); and Welfare and Human Resources Division (PHRWH). On July 1, 1992, a Population Policy and Advisory Service Group (PPAS) was established in the Front Office of the Department to increase attention to population work. The PHR was responsible for:

• formulating policies and strategies for human resource development and women in development, and developing new initiatives and Bank products;

• conducting supporting research, including the improvement of research capabilities in developing countries, and management of external research funded through the Research Support Budget;

• improving methodology and identifying best practices;

• performing ex-post evaluation of the Bank's human resources sector work;

• providing operational support;

• liaising with non-Bank organizations and professionals in the field;

• developing householddata on living standards; and

• assisting in the recruitment and training of staff.

In 1991, the priority areas of education sector lending were:

• improving the effectiveness and efficiency of primary education;

• increasing the access of women and girls to education;

• strengthening science and technology education;

• improving the efficiency and flexibility of training systems;

• strengthening the contributions of higher education and sciences and technology institutions to development; and

• continuing support for project-related training and the development of sectoral training capacity.

On December 1, 1991, President Lewis Preston's first reorganization abolished all Senior Vice-Presidencies. The new Sector and Operations Policy Vice Presidency (OSP) was created and adopted functions previously supervised by Senior Vice Presidents, including the PHR. On January 1, 1993, as part of a larger initiative to align the Bank's organization with the priority areas of its poverty reduction effort, the Sector and Operations Policy Vice Presidency (OSP) was terminated. On January 1, 1993, as part of a larger initiative to align the Bank's organization with the priority areas of its poverty reduction effort, the Sector and Operations Policy Vice Presidency (OSP) was terminated. All research activities were removed from the departments in the Central Vice Presidencies, including PHR, and were consolidated under the Chief Economist and Vice President for Development Economics (DECVP). The Policy Research Department (PRD) under DECVP became the principal research arm of the Bank including responsibility for education and employment sector research.

OSP was replaced by three new thematic vice presidencies: Human Resources Development and Operations Policy (HRO), Finance and Private Sector Development (FPD), and Environmentally Sustainable Development (ESD).

During the 1993 reorganization, the PHR was terminated and its functions were split between a new Education and Social Policy Department (ESP) and a Population, Health and Nutrition Department (PHN). Both of these departments were placed in the HRO vice presidency along with an Operations Policy Department (OPR). The OPR absorbed the functions of: the former Central Operations Department (COD); the International Economic Relations Division (OPRIE); and the UN Office in New York (OPRNY) transferred from the External Relations Department (EXT).

On July 1, 1995, HRO became Human Capital Development and Operations Policy (HCO). At this time ESP was terminated; the education functions were moved into the new Human Development Department (HDD) which consisted of education as well as the previous Population, Health and Nutrition functions of PHN. The Social Policy function of ESP was moved into the new Poverty and Social Policy Department (PSP).

Among the major initiatives in the early 1990s was the World Conference on Education for All (WCEFA), an inter-agency initiative involving the Bank that began with a conference to focus on achieving universal basic education. The impetus for the conference was the United Nations General Assembly declaration of 1990 as International Literacy Year. WCEFA was held March 2-5, 1990, in Jomtien, Thailand and was co-hosted by the Bank. It brought together 155 governments, 33 intergovernmental bodies, and 125 nongovernmental organizations. Participants adopted the World Declaration on Education for All charter which outlined six goals designed to meet the learning needs of children, youth, and adults. A Framework for Action: Meeting Basic Learning Needs was also adopted. It outlined general priority actions for countries. At Jomtien, the Bank pledged to double its lending for education. WCEFA launched the international Education for All (EFA) program.

1996 - 2014

Beginning in September 1996 and into 1997, the thematic Vice Presidencies were reorganized to strike a better balance between country focus and sectoral excellence. The Human Development Network (HDN) was the first to be launched in the Bank-wide reorganization into networks to facilitate sharing of expertise and knowledge. Networks linked Bank-wide communities of staff working in the same field across organizational boundaries and with external partners. The networks formed a virtual overlay on the existing Bank organization, and were intended to link staff working in the same sectors throughout the Bank, whether the staff was located in the regions, in the Central Vice-Presidencies' Sector Departments, or other vice-presidencies.

Each of the three thematic Central Vice-Presidencies was transformed into the central units, or anchors, of each network and consisted of the existing sector departments. On a Bank-wide basis, sector specialists were grouped into regional sector units or into central sector departments that worked with country departments in a matrix relationship. Staff from the central sector departments could become part of the Regional operational teams when their sectoral expertise was required.

The work programs of Network staff focused on the following items.

• Global knowledge - putting the best development knowledge in the hands of Bank task teams; ensuring that the knowledge base was accessible to external clients; and contributing to the growth of the knowledge base.

• Enhanced skills - developing and providing content to training courses; establishing professional and technical standards for professional development.

• Shared strategies - assisting regional and central units to develop a common sector agenda, and ensuring that skills are effectively deployed across the entire network. Network leadership assumed responsibility for global programs, sector strategy development and evaluation, strategic partnerships, and learning and dissemination.

• Best teams and best practices - improving the Bank's flexibility and mobility by building stronger task teams and delivering higher quality products.

• Institutional initiatives - providing substantial support for new Bank-wide initiatives, such as Social Development, Rural Development, Financial Sector, Anti-corruption, Human Resources, and Knowledge Partnerships.

The result of the 1997 restructuring was four networks: the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Network (ESSD); the Finance, Private Sector Development, and Infrastructure Network (FPD); the Human Development Network (HDN); and the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network (PRM). Within the network, the Human Development Network Council was responsible for the overall management of HDN led by Chair, David de Ferranti (HDNVP), previously director of HDD.

As part of this reorganization, the HDD was broken into three teams and placed in HDN. The teams included: Education Team (HDNED); Health, Nutrition, and Population Team (HDNHE); and the Social Protection Team (HDNSP). In 2002 an HIV/AIDS Global Program Team (HDNGA) was created and added to the HDN, led by Adviser Dr. Debrework Zewdie (later director).

Also, as a result of the 1997 reorganization, sector boards were established within HDN and other sectors. Sector boards replaced the existing staffing groups and sector panels, but with expanded mandates to include achieving the network priorities. Each sector department had its own board, chaired by the sector director in the network anchor. The sector board was drawn from staff within the network, and was also comprised of representatives from the regions, non-regional functional departments (Development Economics and World Bank Institute), and the International Finance Corporation (IFC). The board was accountable to the network council and was supported by a secretariat. The role of the board was to set the strategy for the Bank's work in the sector, endorse business plans and budget, ensure the regions and anchor perspectives were in sync, and to oversee the outreach and partnerships for the sector, with the anchor staff often doing the day-to-day management and monitoring of global trust funds.

Among the Education Team's key initiatives during this period was the establishment of the Education Advisory Service (ESA) in fiscalyear 1997 to help staff leverage knowledge and information. An education management system was launched to respond to requests for Bank teams to locate consultants, learn about project experiences, improve project design, and implement projects. Clients included field mission teams, countries, and partner institutions. Also, the 1999 Education Sector Strategy paper was issued. Thestrategy focused on taking stock of global changes and progress in educational development as well as priorities and programs to help countries progress toward international education goals and improve the quality of teaching and learning.

The World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal in 2000 convened partners from government, UN agencies, the Bank, NGOs, and academia to determine the direction education was to take in the new millennium, both in their own countries and around the world. Ten years after Education for All (EFA), many countries were far from reaching the established goals. The commitment to achieve EFA by the year 2015 was affirmed at the Dakar forum. Bank President James D. Wolfensohn told the forum that no country with viable and sustainable plan for achieving EFA will be unable to implement it for lack of external resources.

In 2002, the Bank, with its development partners, established the Education for All Fast Track Initiative (EFA-FTI) to help low-income countries achieve free, universal basic education by 2015 pursuant to the United Nations' Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

In 2011, the Education Sector Strategy 2020 "Learning for All" was launched. The strategy encouraged countries to invest in early childhood education to build foundational skills and lifelong learning, and to invest in efforts shown to improve learning. The EFA-FTI was also rebranded as the Global Partnership for Education and a Global Partnership for Education Fund (GPEF) was established as a Financial Intermediary Fund (FIF) to support its operations. The GPE secretariat was hosted by the Bank, within HDN.

2014

On July 1, 2014, a Bank-wide reorganization introduced by Bank President Jim Yong Kim restructured the Bank into fourteen Global Practices (GPs) and five Cross-Cutting Solution Areas (CCSAs). Sector staff from the Regional Vice Presidencies were removed and placed in the GPs or CCSAs. The GPs were responsible for each of the major thematic areas that the Bank supports through projects and functions as a vertical pillar of technical expertise. Responsibilities of the EDU GP include:

• defining the strategic direction and the Bank's work in education with a view to supporting countries in ensuring improved education outcomes for all;

• developing and deploying expertise globally;

• delivering integrated solutions to client countries;

• capturing and leveraging knowledge in education.

The Education Team (HDNED) established from the 1997 reorganization now became Education Global Practice (EDU)reporting to the Human Development Practice Group Vice Presidency (GGHVP). Claudia Costin was appointed senior director and Amit Dar, director. The senior director continued to lead the sector board. Nine Education Global Practice managers reporting to the director were responsible for the following regions divided into: Latin America and Caribbean, (HLCED); Middle East (HMNED); Europe and Central Asia (HECED); Africa 1 (HAEE1); Africa 2 (HAWE2); Africa 3 (HAWE3); South Asia (HSAED); East Asia and Pacific (HEAED), and Global Engagement and Knowledge unit (HEDGE).

Past directors or sector leaders are as follows:

1963 - 1964 Ricardo Diez-Hochleitner

1964 - 1977 Duncan S. Ballantine

1977 - 1978 Mats G. Hultin (acting)

1978 - 1987 Aklilu Habte

1987 - 1988 Wadi D. Haddad (senior adviser, Education under PHR director)

1989 - 1992 Adriaan M. Verspoor

1993 - 1994 Peter Russell Moock (manager, Education under ESP director)

1995 - 2000 Maris O'Rourke (senior adviser HDD then director HDNED 1997)

2000 - 2001 Bruno LaPorte and Marlaine Lockheed (acting)

2001 - 2008 Ruth Kagia

2009 - 2014 Elizabeth King

2014 - 2017 Claudia Costin

The Human Resources Development and Operations Policy Vice Presidency (HRO) was one of three Vice Presidencies created during President Lewis Preston's reorganization of January 1, 1993. Following the abolishment of all Senior Vice Presidencies on December 1, 1991, Preston initiated a larger reorganization in 1993 that aligned the Bank's organization with the priority areas of its poverty reduction effort. The result was three new thematic vice presidencies: the HRO; Finance and Private Sector Development (FPD); and Environmentally Sustainable Development (ESD).

The vice presidencies were responsible for:

• Providing operational support to the Regions through participation in Sector Operations Division (SOD) task teams, undertaking specialized assignments for the Regions, providing ad hoc advice, distilling lessons of operational experience and disseminating best practices, and definition of sector and operational policies;

• Assisting in identifying and addressing the Bank's skisurells mix and training needs; * Providing information and intellectual support to interested actors outside the Bank;

• Liaising with the UN and other official and private organizations;

• Delivering complete products to the country directors in the 'clustered subsectors', where the small number of expert staff can most efficiently be located in the central Vice Presidency.

As part of the 1993 reorganization, the former Population and Human Resources Department was terminated and its divisions were split between two newly created departments: the Population, Health and Nutrition Department (PHN) and the Education and Social Policy Department (ESP). Both of these departments were placed in the HRO Vice Presidency along with an Operations Policy Department (OPR). The OPR absorbed the functions of: the former Central Operations Department (COD); the International Economic Relations Division (OPRIE); and the UN Office in New York (OPRNY) transferred from the External Relations Department (EXT).

In January 1994, President Lewis Preston created a secretariat within the HRO (HROAN) responsible for managing a program of the Bank's 50th anniversary activities.

On July 1 1995, HRO became Human Capital Development and Operations Policy (HCO). At this time education, health, nutrition and population functions were again combined in a single department named the Human Development Department (HDD). A Poverty and Social Policy Department (PSP) was also formed and placed in HCO.

Zmarak Shalizi joined the World Bank in 1975 as a participant in the Bank's Young Professionals Program. He served as an economist in the Europe, Middle East, and North Africa Regional Office; the Water Supply and Urban Development Department; the Resource Mobilization and Public Management Division of the Country Policy Department; and the Public Economics Division of the Country Economics Department. After a brief assignment as the chief administrative officer in the Policy Research Department, he was named the chief of the Transport Division in the Infrastructure and Urban Development Department (later the Transport, Water and Urban Development Department) in 1991. In 1995 he became the chief of the Environment, Infrastructure and Agriculture Division in the Policy Research Department. Two years later, in 1997, he moved to the Development Research Group in the Development Economics vice presidency as a research manager, becoming senior research manager in 2005.

In late 1981, the Bank decided to reorganize its economic analysis, research, and policy activities. In February 1982, the Development Policy Staff became the Economics and Research Staff (ERS) headed by Vice President Hollis Chenery (VPERS) who reported directly to the President. VPERS was Chief Economic Adviser to the President and a member of the Bank's Managing Committee and Senior Management Council.

Chenery continued to have a Research Adviser in his office who headed a small policy advisory unit, but the subordinate units were reduced to two. The Economic Analysis and Projections Department (EPD) continued and a new Development Research Department (DRD) was created out of a combination of the Development Research Center and a portion of the Development Economics Department under the former VPD. In August 1982, Hollis Chenery was succeeded by Ann Krueger who served as VPERS until December 1986. Benjamin B. King served as Acting VPERS after her departure.

The ERS functions were nearly the same as those of the former Development Policy Staff and included responsibility for: analysis of the international economy, external debt and commodities; country modeling and comparative analysis; maintenance of economic and social data; basic research on the nature of the development process; improvement of analytical tools for economic work; oversight for the Bank-wide research program; and preparation of The World Development Report.

In 1982, the former External Research Budget (ERB) became known as the Research Support Budget (RSB). Researchers in all parts of the Bank were allowed to compete for funds from the RSB to finance consultants, research assistance, and travel expenses related to their research. In 1983, a senior economist was added to the staff to manage a policy analysis unit in the immediate office of the Vice President. In August 1983, the Research Policy Council (RPC) was established by the Bank President to provide leadership in the guidance, coordination, and evaluation of all Bank research.Consisting of five Vice-Presidents and chaired by VPERS, it was charged with developing Bankwide strategic objectives, polices and plans for research; establishing priorities for funding of Bank research; and making resource recommendations to the President and the Managing Directors regarding the Bank's funding of research.

In January 1984, the RPC replaced the Research Committee with two new bodies: the Research Projects Approval Committee (REPAC), which reported to RPC and had responsibility for reviewing and evaluating project proposals; and the Bank Research Advisory Group (BRAG), which was tasked with providing RPC with a wide range of Bank views on research issues. A new Research Administration Unit (RAD) was created in VPERS in July 1984 headed by a Research Administrator to provide secretariat support to RPC. In February 1985, a managing editor was added to the staff for the new journal World Bank Economic Review.

In the May 1987 general reorganization of the Bank, the ERS Vice Presidency was terminated and most of its functions were transferred to the new Development Economics Vice Presidency (DEC).

John Jay McCloy (1895-1989) was named president of the World Bank on February 28, 1947 and took office on March 17, 1947. McCloy's appointment followed a three month search for a successor to the Bank's first president, Eugene I. Meyer, who had resigned on December 4, 1946.

Prior to joining the Bank, McCloy spent twenty years practicing corporate law in New York and Europe. He also served as Assistant Secretary of War under Henry L. Stimson in the Roosevelt administration during World War II. By the timehe was nominated as World Bank President, McCloy had a broad network of relationships in both business and government spheres.

McCloy entered the Bank during a time of great uncertainty for the organization. Internally, the issue of who would command executive authority - the Bank president or the executive directors - had yet to be resolved. Externally, the World Bank was viewed with skepticism by many. Impatience for lending operations to begin, uncertainty regarding Bank capital, and questions about leadership were some of the more common concerns expressed by government officials, Wall Street, and the media.

 The issues of executive authority and the Bank's relationship with the United States government were largely resolved during the negotiation of McCloy's nomination. McCloy demanded resolution to the issue of executive authority as a condition of his acceptance of the position. His demands for executive authority were met and were reflected in a June 1947 report of the Board's Committee on Organization. The report stipulated that the Executive Directors were responsible for policy decisions but that recommendations for these decisions must come from Bank management. It also described how Bank operations were under the purview of the president and Bank staff; management would decide whether a loan application was to be pursued and would determine the framework for negotiations. Only after the completion of negotiations would the president submit a loan proposal to the Board for approval. 
The relationship between the Bank president and the United States government was also resolved as a condition of McCloy's acceptance of the Bank's presidency. McCloy demanded that the Bank and the Office of the President not be subject to the dictates of the U.S. government and the American Executive Director. A related condition of McCloy's acceptance of the Bank presidency was that Eugene R. Black would be named the new Executive Director representing the United States. 
While applications for lending had been received prior to his arrival, the signing of the first World Bank loan on May 7, 1947 didn't take place until after McCloy took office. The loan, for $250 million, was made to Credit National, a semipublic French corporation, for post-Second World War reconstruction. Policies related to interest rates, security requirements, and fund dispersal were established during the preparation and negotiation of this and other early loans.

The majority of Bank lending under McCloy was to European countries in support of their reconstruction following the War. However, McCloy foresaw and supported a quick transition to bilateral aid for reconstruction purposes, allowing the Bank to increase investment in the poorer and post-colonial countries of Latin America, Africa and Asia. The Bank's first development loan was made during McCloy's time in office. On March 25, 1948 Chile signed a loan agreement for $15 million to fund hydroelectric and agricultural development.

McCloy also presided over the Bank's first bond offering. The offering of $250 million took place in July of 1947. The offering was deemed a success, as it was substantially oversubscribed.

As the Bank was still a relatively small institution under McCloy's leadership, it maintained a simple organizational structure. Robert Garner, who had joined the Bank at the same time that McCloy was named Bank President, served as the lone Vice President throughout McCloy's tenure. Senior managers, including department directors, had regular and direct access to the President on an informal basis.

McCloy's resignation from the Bank was announced on May 18, 1949.

Robert Strange McNamara (1916-2009) became President of the World Bank Group in April 1968. This followed seven years as United States Secretary of Defense and a period at the Ford Motor Company in the 1950s where he ascended to the position of president. Over the course of his thirteen years as President of the World Bank, McNamara brought considerable change to all aspects of Bank operations. The Bank began to specifically address problems of income disparity and poverty and diversified into sectors previously ignored by both the Bank and the burgeoning development community. It also began to play a more active and at times critical role in many developing economies.

The most prominent action McNamara took upon first becoming World Bank Group President was to dramatically increase the volume of lending. Based on his first five-year lending plan, he proposed to the Governors of the World Bank Group at the Annual Meetings in 1968 that the Bank double the volume of lending during the next five years. His second five-year plan, introduced in 1973, proposed another 40% increase. Bank commitments rose from $1 billion in 1968 to $13 billion in 1981. In order to prepare projects at the necessary rate, McNamara introduced the Country Program Paper (CPP) in 1969; the purpose of the CPP was to provide an overall and long-term development strategy for each country.

The number of staff increased by 125% during McNamara's first five years, and from 1,600 to 5,700 over the course of his tenure. Diversification in the nationality of staff also increased. In order to accommodate the expanding volume of business and the corresponding increase in staff, McNamara undertook a massive, Bank-wide reorganization in 1972. The most significant aspect of the reorganization was the integration of the former Projects Division, which consisted of sector specialists responsible for operational project work, into one of five new Regional Vice Presidencies (RVP). Thus, rather than one Projects Department supporting projects in countrieson an ad hoc basis, each RVP would maintain its own projects staff. As a result, staff responsible for both sector skills and country knowledge would necessarily work more closely together.

In order to mobilize the resources to fund this massive expansion of Bank operations, McNamara found less conventional avenues of support. He looked beyond Wall Street to Germany, Japan, and the Middle East. He also increased borrowing from central banks and broke into the European pension trust market. In 1969, he hired Eugene Rotberg to take command of these ambitious borrowing plans.

McNamara focused on the issue of population growth more than any other Bank President. The Bank's first financing for family planning was approved under McNamara in 1970. He also continued to expand the Bank's emphasis on agricultural lending. With the support of the Bank's economic research lead, Hollis Chenery, McNamara recommended measures such as land and tenancy reform and programs to increase the productivity of small farmers. Education lending also grew during McNamara's tenure, increasing threefold between 1968 and 1981. In the middle to late 1970s, urban poverty was increasingly identified for renewed focus by the Bank; urban assistance programs aimed at increasing employment opportunities, improving squatter settlement programs, supporting small-scale enterprise financing, and implementing plans for basic services in transport, electricity, water supply, and education.

McNamara also made a concerted effort to increase the financial support and status of development finance research in the Bank. This was evidenced by the Bank's early sponsorship of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and by the recruitment of the distinguished development economist, Hollis Chenery, to run the Bank's research activity and to be its chief economist. Chenery was encouraged to undertake general research as well as to provide analytical guidance to the new operational and sector policy units. By the time of McNamara's departure from the Bank in 1981, it was able to claim a role as an intellectual leader in development matters.

Towards the end of his time as President, the World Bank Group became even more involved in the economic policies of borrower nations through the proliferation of structural adjustment program lending. This included a call for a reorientation of economic policies to accomplish higher savings and investment rates, greater efficiency in the domestic use of capital, and more emphasis on the private sector than previously advocated. Structural adjustment loans provided financing that would induce reforms but would also deliver significant negotiable resources.

In terms of the organizational structure of the Bank during McNamara's tenure, the most significant change was the previously described 1972 reorganization. The arrangement of McNamara's most immediate advisers was not considerably altered. He maintained the formal structure of the President's Council as put in place by his predecessor GeorgeWoods, although the responsibilities of its members were distributed on a more functionally specific basis: as Senior Vice President of Operations (SVPOP) , Burke Knapp was responsible for lending and technical assistance activities only; Simon Aldewereld was designated Vice President of Finance (VPF); Mohammad Shoaib was named Vice President, Organization Planning and Personnel Management (VPO) and became responsible for administrative matters; and Vice President Dennis Rickett, who came on board with McNamara, was assigned responsibility for liaison with Part I countries and IDA replenishment negotiations.

Following the retirement of Vice Presidents Alderwereld and Rickett in 1974 and, earlier, Development Services Director Richard Demuth, a number of changes were instituted, many of which involved the RVPs. Significantly, the Director, External Relations (DER), who had supervised the Information and Public Affairs Department (IPA) and all functions previously assigned to the Development Services Department, was upgraded to a Vice President, External Relations. William Clark was named EXTVP. In 1978 the Vice President, Finance was upgraded to Senior Vice President, Finance (SVPFI), reflecting added responsibilities. I.P.M. Cargill, who had replaced Simon Aldewereld upon his retirement in 1974, was named SVP. Cargill was, in turn, replaced by Moeen Qureshi in 1980.

After more than thirteen years, McNamara departed the Bank in June 1981. Several of his most prominent managers and advisers left with him upon his departure, including: William Clark, his public affairs chief; Mahbub ul Haq, his most visible and articulate progressive; and Hollis Chenery.

Barber Benjamin Conable (1922-2003), the World Bank Group's seventh President, was a career politician and had no substantial Wall Street experience. Conable had a background in law, graduating at Cornell University Law School in 1948. After serving in both World War II and Korea, he established a practice in New York. He later opted for a political career, first becoming a Republican member of the New York state senate, and then, in 1964, a member of the US Congress, where he served ten consecutive two-year terms.

Conable's first order of business upon becoming President in 1986 was to identify ways to trim the Bank's budget. It was decided that a major reorganization of the Bank would be the most effective way to create significant savings. An external consulting firm was hired to analyze the Bank's operations and an internal committee was appointed to implement the changes. The most significant result of the 1987 reorganization was the Country Department, rather than the Regional Vice Presidencies, became the basic program and budget unit. Two new Senior Vice Presidents for Policy, Planning and Research (PPRSV) and Administration (SVPAD), were also created. The latter became the Senior Vice President, External Affairs and Administration (EAASV) in 1988.

The ongoing debt crisis was another issue that Conable faced upon his arrival at the Bank. Initiatives such as the U.S.-sponsored Baker Plan attempted to alleviate debt in developing countries by urging financial institutions and commercial lenders to lend new monies to countries engaged in acceptable structural reforms. However, these initiatives found limited success. Initially, Conable and the Bank rejected calls for debt relief, but by 1987 a new debt-restructuring package to reduce existing debt and supplement new lending was announced by the Bank. The debt crisis contributed to increased cooperation between the Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), resulting in jointly authored policy framework papers and, in 1989, a Concordat that allocated primary responsibilities between the two institutions.

Conable attempted to address criticism of the Bank's impact on the environment by strengthening environmental safeguards. An Environment Department was created in the 1987 reorganization. Its responsibilities were to review and direct research and policy on the environment and to conduct regular discussion with borrowers on the environmental implications of proposed projects. In addition, technical departments located in each regional vice presidencybegan reviewing projects for environmental soundness and were responsible for assisting in the implementation of specific environmental measures. The Bank also became involved in a number of highly visible international environmental efforts, including, alongside the United Nations, the creation of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) in 1990. Another result of this increased focus on the environment was a more open and collaborative relationship between the Bank and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs).

Conable also played a role in enlarging the role of other sectors focused on the social dimensions of development. He appointed a task force of senior staff to review the Bank's poverty programs and emphasized the connection between women and development by increasing the responsibility of the nascent Women in Development sector.

International Finance Corporation (IFC) operations continued to increase under Conable. It continued expansion into Africa and South Asia and into new areas of activity, such ascapital market development, corporate restructuring, and assistance to small and medium enterprises. Notably, the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), which was conceived during A. W. Clausen's term as World Bank Group President, was launched in 1988. Its purpose was to insure private investors against political risks and thereby promote private investments in developing countries.

The Conable tenure at the Bank witnessed the breakdown of the Soviet bloc and the transformation of Eastern European economies. The World Bank along with the IMF played a central role in the economic transition. The Bank participated in a comprehensive needs assessment of the Soviet economy. A World Bank office was opened in Moscow in 1991 and Conable traveled to Eastern Europe to offer advice and assistance, signing the first loan agreement with Poland in 1990.

Conable instituted a change to the senior management structure in 1987, replacing the former Managing Committee with the new Policy Committee. The new Committee, which served as the principle advisory body to the President, was comprised of: the President; Chairman; Senior Vice President, Operations; Senior Vice President, Finance; Senior Vice President, Policy, Planning and Research; Senior Vice President, Administration (later the Senior Vice President, External Affairs and Administration); the Executive Vice President of the IFC; and the Bank's General Counsel.

Conable served a single term as President, leaving the Bank in August 1991.

In 1989 the World Bank commissioned the Brookings Institution to prepare a history of the Bank as part of the commemoration of the Bank's fiftieth anniversary. The history was to be a comprehensive analytical history, describing the evolution of the policies, operations and administration of the World Bank and its affiliates. The book would cover the Bank's history from the beginning of its operation but would focus on the years after 1970.

Brookings engaged John Lewis of the United States and Richard Webb of Peru to prepare the work and hired Devesh Kapur of India as research associate. Kapur's work became so central to the project that he became a third co-author. An international advisory committee was formed to advise the authors, and the Bank established an Internal Review Group to review the drafts and provide the Bank's views to the authors. The Bank also provided an office for the authors and a liaison officer for the project, and the authors were given unrestricted access to Bank operational files dated prior to June 30, 1991.

The first volume was written by the three co-authors and covered the overarching history of the Bank. The second volume is a series of essays on the World Bank's relations with member countries or with specific issues or organizations; the essays were written by guest authors from outside the Bank, except one written by the three principal co-authors. Although the plan was to publish in 1994, The World Bank: Its First Half Century, was not published until 1997.

Pedro-Pablo Kuczynski was born on October 3, 1938 in Lima, Peru. He attended Oxford University where he earned a degree in politics and economics. He then earned a master's degree in economics from Princeton University in 1961.

Kuczynski joined the World Bank immediately following his time at Princeton. He was hired as a loan officer and economist in the Western Hemisphere Department. His work included economic research on a number of Central and South American countries with a focus on mining and extractive industries. In 1963 he lectured at the Bank's Economic Development Institute (EDI).

In 1967 Kuczynski returned to Peru where he held a number of positions, including Director of the Central Reserve Bank of Peru. He returned to the United States in 1969. Before returning to the World Bank in 1971, he was employed by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and served as a consultant to Maurice Strong, Director of the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA).

Upon his return to the Bank, Kuczynski was named Chief Economist of the Central America and Caribbean Department (CACDR). In 1973 he moved to the new Policy Planning and Program Review Department (EPR, then, after 1977, PPR) where he was named the chief of the Policy Planning Division (EPRPP, then PPRPP), a position he held until the fall of 1973. The Policy Planning Division analyzed the Bank's development policy structure and sought to identify gaps, weaknesses and opportunities for innovation within the Bank.

Between 1972 and 1973, Kuczynski was also a member of the Bank's Research Committee. The Committee's main function was to review all Bank research projects and to advise the Chairman, who had ultimate responsibility for approving research projects, on their merit. It also developed an overall research program, setting priorities and initiating research proposals.

Kuczynski left the Bank again in the fall of 1973. Between 1973 and 1975 he served as the Vice President of Kuhn, Loeb and Co., an international investment bank headquartered in New York, New York and then as an adviser to the Central Bank of Venezuela.

In 1975 Kuczynski returned to the World Bank Group as economic adviser in the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and left in 1977.

Since departing the Bank, Kuczynski has also worked in international banking, private equity, and non-governmental organizations and has authored and coedited a number of books on Latin American development.

Kuczynski has also served in a variety of posts in the Peruvian national government, including: Minister of Energy and Mines (July 1980 to August 1982); Minister of Economy and Finance (July 2001 to July 2002 and February 2004 to August 2005); and Prime Minister (August 2005 to July 2006). After an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 2011, Kuczynski was elected the president of Peru in 2016.

Bernard Raymond Bell was born in Philadelphia on January 9, 1912 and was educated at the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Paris. Bell began his career as an economist with the Department of Agriculture in 1935 and served as chief economist of the Export-Import Bank in the U.S. He was employed by various consulting firms from 1953 to 1965.

He first joined the World Bank in 1962 when he was engaged as a consultant to serve as a transportation adviser on a mission to Colombia. At that time, he was associated with a consulting firm, Surveys and Research Corporation, of Washington, D.C. From September 1964 through 1965 he directed a major Bank mission to India, at the request of President George D. Woods, to conduct a comprehensive study of the Indian economy and advise the Bank and its partnering aid group, the India Consortium, on India's economic challenges. During this period, India was the Bank's largest debtor and was also heavily indebted to several other development agencies and governments around the world. The report titled Report to the President on India?s Economic Development Effort, also known as the Bell Mission report, was issued on October 1, 1965. The report significantly influenced Bank policies toward development in India, recommending the introduction of intensified agricultural production and the devaluation of the Indian currency. The mission report also supported India's request for additional development assistance, especially for quicker project disbursements.

In December 1965, Bell joined the regular staff of the Bank as Assistant Director, Economics, Project Department and became Deputy Director of the Projects Department in 1967. Bell continued to be involved with India when he was appointed economic advisor to President Woods' resident representative to India, Andre de Lattre, who was handling financial negotiations between the government of India and the India Consortium. Bell was responsible for the Bank's analysis of the Indian government?s Fourth Five-Year Plan. His study was published in the subsequent 1967 Bank report titled ?Indian Economic Policy and the Fourth Five Year Plan".

In August 1968 Bell went to Djakarta, Indonesia as Director, Resident Staff Indonesia. Following the reorganization of the Bank in October 1972, he returned to headquarters to become the Vice President, Eastern Africa Region (AFRVP), and then became Regional Vice President, East Asia and Pacific Region (EAPVP), in July 1974. He retired from the World Bank in January 1977.

Bell later served as a consulting economist for the International Finance Corporation (IFC) as well as for the Bank and was a director of the Housing Development Corporation in Bombay until 1989.

He died on March 29, 1994 at his home in Washington, D.C.

Vinod Dubey was educated at the Universities of Allahabad and Cambridge. Before coming to the World Bank, he was an Assistant Professor of Economics at the University of Allahabad (1953); an economist with the National Council of Applied Economic Research, New Delhi, India (1960); and Economic Affairs Officer, United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, Bangkok (1964). He began his World Bank career as an Economist in July 1965 and then served as an Economist in the Creditworthiness Studies Group, Economics Department (1969 - 1970); and as an Economist (1970 - 1971), a Senior Economist (1972 - 1975), and the Chief Economist (1975 - 1983) in the Europe, Middle East, and North Africa Regional Office. He was first a Senior Adviser (1984 - 1985) and then Director (1986 - 1987) in the Country Policy Department in the Office of Operations Policy. While in CPD, he also served as the first Liaison Officer to the Paris Club, 1984 - 1986. His last World Bank assignment was as the Director of the Economic Advisory Staff from June 1987 until his retirement at the end of November 1990.

Heywood Fleisig received bachelor's degrees in economics, philosophy, and political science from Swathmore College (Swathmore, Pennsylvania) in 1961. In 1963, Fleisig obtained a Master of Arts. in economics from Yale University. He later finished his PhD in economics at Yale University, specializing in international finance, trade, and economic history in 1969.

Prior to joining the World Bank, Fleisig served as a Coffee and Cocoa Analyst for Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner, and Smith in New York City from 1961 to 1962. He also taught economics as an Assistant Professor at Cornell University from 1966 to 1974. From 1974 to 1979, Fleisig served as an Economist for the Division of International Finance of the Federal Reserve Board. He later served as the Principal Analyst for the Fiscal Analysis Division of the Congressional Budget Office from 1979 to 1982.

In February 1982, Heywood Fleisig began his World Bank career as an Economist for the International Trade and Capital Flows Division of the Economics Program Department (EPDIT). Fleisig served in numerous roles at the World Bank, including: Senior Economist in the Global Analysis and Projections Division of the Economics Program Department (EDPGL), January 1984 to May 1986; Senior Economist in the East Asia and Pacific Vice Presidency (AENVP), December 1986 to May 1987; Principal Economist in the Asia Vice Presidency (ASIVP), July 1987 to May 1989; Principal Economist in the Country Operations Division, Asia-Country Department II (AS2CO), July 1989 to January 1990; Principal Economist in the Office of the Chief Economist, Latin America and Caribbean Region (LACCE), January 1990 to May 1993; and Adviser in the Private Sector Development Department (PSD), October 1993 to March 1996. Fleisig retired from the Bank in 1996, but later served as a consultant to the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and World Bank Investment Climate Department (CIC) in 2005 and 2007.

After his retirement from the Bank in 1996, Fleisig served as Research Director for the Centerfor the Economic Analysis of Law (CEAL) located in Washington, D.C.

Benjamin B. King joined the World Bank in 1947 as an economist. During his long career he served in various parts of the Bank: the Economics Department (1947-1949, 1950-1952, 1965-1967), Office of the President (1949-1950), Europe, Africa & Australasia Department (1952-1957), Economic Development Institute (1957-1962), South Asia and Middle East Department (1962-1965), South Asia Department (1967-1970), Special Projects Department (1970-71), Economics Program Department (1971-1972), and Development Policy Staff (1974-1978). He completed his career as the Director, Development Economics Department, 1978-1981. From 1972-1974 King was seconded from the World Bank to serve as an adviser to the Canadian International Development Agency.

The operations policy function of the World Bank is broadly defined as determining standards, policies, and guidelines for lending, technical assistance, and other operations to best assist countries in their development.

1946 - 1972

Upon the opening of the World Bank in 1946, functional responsibility for operations policy was not ascribed to any particular World Bank unit, as the Bank's organizational structure was still in the process of being established.

Departmental responsibility for the operations policy function was first initiated as a result of the closure of the Loan Department (LOD) in 1952. LOD functions were divided between geographically organized Area Departments, which were responsible for country relations, and the Technical Operations Department (TOD), which was responsible for project identification, appraisal and supervision. In addition, TOD was responsible for operations policy-related activities, such as policy formulation, research, and advice in support of the activities of the Area Departments.

1972 - 1982

TOD and its successor, the Projects Department (PRJ, 1965-1972), maintained responsibility for operations policy-related functions until a significant reorganization of the Bank's operations in 1972.The expansion of Bank lending operations in the late 1960s and early 1970s prompted the 1972 reorganization. The reorganization included the elevation of the former Area Departments to new Regional Vice Presidencies (RVP), and the decentralization of most operational

staff from the former PRJ to new sector-oriented Projects Departments located in the RVPs. Remaining PRJ staff were organized into centralized sector-oriented departments known as Central Projects Staff (CPS). The resulting Operations Complex, containing both RVPs and CPS departments, was overseen by Senior Vice President of Operations (SVPOP) Burke Knapp.

The reorganization resulted in the assignment of policy formulation responsibilities to two key groups: the Central Projects Staff (CPS) and the Development Policy Staff (DPS). Policy formulation was divided between "operating policy", which was the responsibility of CPS, and "development policy", undertaken by DPS. The DPS development policy was defined as strategies and activities developing countries may undertake, and focused on formulating development policy at

both general and country levels. CPS's operating policy work related to the development of policies, guidelines, and standards directing the Bank's lending and advisory activities. More specifically, CPS's operations policy development involved:

• preparing policy papers outlining the basic principles and approaches of the Bank relating to project and sector work;

• preparing guidelines and standards for particular problems (e.g. procurement, pre-investment, etc.);

• collecting and interpreting data to provide better access to information required for sector and project work;

• developing monitoring systems to effectively monitor the project cycle; and

• developing analytical tools and implementing their use in operations.

The CPSVP consisted of the following subordinate units: the sector departments of the Agriculture Department (AGP), the Education Department (EDP), the Public Utilities Department (PBP), the Transportation Department (TRP), the Development Finance Corporations Department (DFC); and the Central Operating Projects Departments (COPD) consisting of staff in the areas of Industry, Population and Nutrition, Tourism, and Urban Development.

The CPSVP also contained the new Projects Advisory Staff (PAS). The PAS served as the main unit responsible for coordinating the newly articulated operating policy functions within the CPSVP, becoming the first World Bank unit with clearly defined responsibilities related to operations policy. PAS focused on cross-sectoral and general operations policy issues, and served as the main unit responsible for coordinating work programs for policy formulation, guidelines,

and standards. The PAS consisted of the following advisers: economic, environmental, financial, pre-investment, procurement, supervision, and training. PAS consisted of no subordinate departments or units.

The sector departments and COPD of the CPSVP shared some policy formulation responsibilities with PAS, but were more heavily focused on providing professional development and project support to their respective sectors in the RVPs and developing sector-specific policy. This differed from PAS, which provided cross-sectoral support and policy development, but also focused on broader non-sectoral matters such as lending and advisory services.

Upon its creation, PAS was led by Director Herman G. van der Tak. Warren C. Baum served as the Vice President for CPSVP.

In January 1977, an adviser position for Women in Development (WID) was created in PAS.

1982 - 1987

In February 1982, the CPSVP was terminated. As a result, the PAS, the sector departments, and the COPD were absorbed by the newly established Operations Policy Vice President (OPSVP). Like its predecessor, the OPSVP reported to the Senior Vice President of Operations (SVPOP) Ernest Stern, who oversaw and managed the Bank's Operations Complex. Within OPSVP, PAS remained the focal point for operations policy functions and activities. The PAS continued to operate alongside centralized sector departments and units within OPSVP. Further, a new Country Policy Department (CPD) was established, absorbing former Development Policy Staff (DPS) who focused on country policy and strategy. CPD's main

responsibility included improving country and economic sector work in Bank operations.

Warren C. Baum remained as the Vice President of the new OPSVP, but was succeeded shortly thereafter by Syed Shahid Husain in 1983. Herman G. van der Tak remained the Director of PAS.

In October 1983, the Projects Advisory Staff (PAS) was restructured and renamed the Projects Policy Department (PPD). PPD maintained a corps of advisers with expertise relevant to cross-sectoral operational topics. PPD responsibilities included:

• formulating operational policies, standards, and guidelines;

• providing advice and reviews for selected projects and project-related work to the regions;

• conducting training and external liaison; and

• supporting the OPSVP in discharging his responsibilities to the Loan Committee.

At the date of its establishment, PPD included the following subordinate units: the Environment, Science, and Technology Unit (PPDES); the Policy and Review Unit (PPDPR); the Public Sector Management Unit (PPDPS); and the Procurement Unit (PPDPC). PPD also included the Adviser for Women in Development (WID).

In 1983, Visvanathan Rajagopalan succeeded Herman G. van der Tak as Director of the new PPD. In 1986, Hans-Eberhard Kopp succeeded Rajagopalan as Director of PPD.

1987 - 1992

During the Bank-wide 1987 reorganization, the OPSVP was terminated. Many of the units formerly contained in OPSVP, including sector policy oriented departments, were transferred to the new Policy and Research Vice Presidency (PRE). CPD functions were transferred to the new Economic Advisory Staff (EAS). Within the Projects Policy Department (PPD), the Public Sector Management Unit (PPDPS) and the WID Adviser were also transferred to PRE. The remaining operational policy oriented functions of PPD were absorbed by the new Central Operations Department (COD), which joined EAS, the Regional Vice Presidencies (RVP), the Vice President of Cofinancing (COF), and the newly established Vice President of

Financial Intermediation (FIS) as part of the new Operations Complex reporting to the Senior Vice President of Operations (OPNSV).

The Central Operations Department (COD) reported to the Senior Vice President of Operations (OPNSV) Moeen Qureshi who oversaw and managed the Bank's Operations Complex. COD responsibilities included:

• planning and production of operational directives, and providing related advice and training to staff;

• reviewing and monitoring project implementation, including preparation of reports to management (PIRs), and managing the Management Information System (MIS) portfolio module;

• advising operations staff on financial and economic analysis;

• coordinating technical assistance activities, including liaison with the UNDP;

• acting as link with the Planning and Research Complex (PPR); and

• providing operational support with regard to procurement matters in the form of advice, guidelines and policy formulation and analysis.

At the time of its establishment, the COD had the following subordinate units: the Operations Policy Unit (CODOP); the Procurement Unit (CODPR); and the Operations Monitoring Unit (CODMO).

In 1987, Ducksoo Lee assumed the role as Director for COD. He was succeeded by Hans Wyss in 1990.

In July 1992, the Operations Information Services Division (PBDIS) was transferred from the Planning and Budgeting Department (PBD) to COD and its acronym changed to CODIS.

In late 1992, World Bank President Lewis Preston terminated the senior vice-presidencies, including OPNSV. As a consequence, COD and its subordinate units were transferred to the short lived Sector and Operations Vice Presidency (OSPVP).

1993 - 1997

In January 1993, OSPVP was terminated and units and functions were absorbed by the new Operations Policy Department (OPR) located in the new Vice President, Human Resources Development and Operations Policy (HROVP).

The Operations Policy Department (OPR) was established on January 1, 1993, and reported to HROVP Armeane M. Choksi. OPR joined two other departments in HROVP: the Population, Health, and Nutrition Department (PHN) and the Education and Social Policy Department (ESP). OPR continued the functions of the former COD. It additionally absorbed the International Economic Relations Division (EXTIE) and the UN Office in New York (EXTNY) units from the Bank's External Relations Department (EXT). OPR responsibilities included:

• developing and disseminating policies and best practices in project economics and project finance;

• producing Operational Directives;

• monitoring and evaluating portfolio management;

• providing policy and operational guidance on procurement matters;

• developing and operating information management tools and applications, managing the Sector Library; and

• managing the Bank's contributions with the Development

Committee, and relations with UN agencies, OECD, EEC and bilateral aid agencies, as well as with NGOs.

At its establishment the OPR consisted of the following subordinate units: the Operations Policy Group (OPRPG); the Procurement Policy and Coordination Unit (OPRPR); the Information Services Division (OPRIS); the Sector Library (OPRSL); and the International Economic Relations Division (OPRIE).

In 1993, James W. Adams assumed the role of Director for OPR.

In 1996, OPR briefly operated independently after it was separated from the Human Capital Development and Operations Policy Vice Presidency (HCO, formerly HROVP). At this time, Myrna Alexander succeeded James W. Adams as Director for OPR.

1997 - 2011

The OPR was terminated in 1997 as part of another Bank-wide reorganization. As a result, the Information Services Division (OPRIS) and the Sector Library (OPRSL) were absorbed by the new Information Services Group (ISG). The International Economic Relations Division (OPRIE) responsible for liaison with international organizations and NGOs was absorbed by the new Social Development Department's Non-Governmental Organization Division (SDVNG). The operations policy related units of the Procurement Policy andCoordination Unit (OPRPR) and the Operations Policy Group (OPRPG) were absorbed by two newly established Bank organizational units: the Operational Core Services Network (OCS) and the Operations Policy and Strategy Group (MDOPS) of the Front Office of the Managing Directors.

First, the new Operational Core Services Network (OCS) responsibilities included procurement policy and advisory functions absorbed from OPRPR, along with new responsibilities related to investment lending and financial management. OCS reported to Bank Managing Director Caio Koch-Weiser. OCS operated in four areas: quality promotion; procurement; financial management; and resource management. At its establishment, the OCS consisted of the following subordinate units: the Operational Services Group (OCSOS) and the Procurement Policy and Services Group (OCSPR). Katherine Sierra served as Vice President and Head of Network for OCS. Second, the new Operations Policy and Strategy Group (MDOPS) absorbed the operation policy functions of theformer OPRPG, which included developing and revising Operational Policies (OP), Bank Procedures (BP), and Good Practices (GP) as part of the Bank's Operational Manual (OM). MDOPS was also responsible for review and reform of operational Country Assistance Strategies (CAS), structural adjustment lending (SAL), and macro-economic policy. The MDOPS reported to Managing Directors Caio Koch-Weiser and Sven Sandstrom, and joined the newly established Quality Assurance Group (MDOQA) in the Front Office of the Managing Directors.

Joanne Salop served as Director for the MDOPS.

In July 1999, MDOPS and MDOQA were separated from the Front Office of the Managing Directors. MDOPS was renamed the Operations Policy and Strategy Vice Presidency (OPS), and Joanne Salop became its first Vice President. The MDOQA acronym

was changed to QAG (Quality Assurance Group). In the same year, the OCS was re-organized into the following subordinate units: the Administrative and Client Support Group (OCSAS); the Operational Services and Knowledge Sharing Group (OCSOK); and the Financial Management Unit (OCSFM).

In January 2001, the functions and staff of OCS, OPS, and QAG were merged to form the new Operational Policy and Country Services Network (OPC).

At its establishment, the OPC consisted of the following subordinate units: the Country Assistance Strategy (CAS) Team and Country Directors Support Desk (OPCCS); the Comprehensive Development Framework (OPCDF); the Financial Management Unit (OPCFM); the Operational Services Unit (OPCOS); the Policy Review and Dissemination Unit (OPCPD); the Products and Services Unit (OPCPG); the Procurement Policy and Services Group (OPCPR); the Operations Processes and Systems Unit (OPCPS); and the Quality Assurance Group (QAG).

Joanne Salop assumed the role of Vice President and Head of Network for the new OPC.

In 2002, James Adams succeeded Joanne Salop as Vice President and Head of Network for OPC. Around this time, the following units were added to OPC: the Country Economics Unit(OPCCE); the Delivery Management Unit (OPCDM); the Investment Lending Unit (OPCIL); and the Country Services Unit (OPCCS). The Results Secretariat (OPCCR) and the Global Monitoring Secretariat (GMS) were also added to OPC. OPCDF, OPCFM, OPCPD, OPCPR, and QAG remained unchanged in OPC.

Around 2006, OPC added the Harmonization Unit (OPCCH), the Aid Effectiveness Unit (OPCAE), the Fragile/Conflict Affected Countries Group (OPCFC), and the Results Secretariat (OPCRX).

In 2007, Jeffrey Gutman succeeded James Adams as Vice President and Head of Network for OPC. In the same year, the Quality Assurance Group (QAG) was separated from OPC and began reporting to Bank Managing Directors Juan Jose Daboub and Ngozi

Okonjo-Iweala.

In 2011, the QAG was re-integrated into OPC.

This fonds contains the records of the World Bank Group units responsible for donor-based resource mobilization functions related to cofinancing, trust funds, and International Development Agency (IDA) replenishments. The fonds does not include records related to the Bank's traditional resource mobilization efforts of acquiring IBRD financing through the world's financial markets because the function does not share a provenance with the units described. This administrative history describes the provenance of the administrative units for cofinancing, trust funds, and IDA replenishments separately. After 1996, the functions merged under one vice presidency. As a consequence, the post-1996 section focuses on all functions together.

Cofinancing

Cofinancing is defined as additional funding sought by borrowing member countries from external sources outside of the World Bank. Cofinancing is meant to supplement funding resources provided by the World Bank (e.g. IBRD/IDA loans, credits, and grants), which may fall short of the funding needs for projects and programs associated with a borrowing member country. Cofinancing funding is sought by the Bank and its member countries from the following external official and private sources: agencies or government departments administrating bilateral development programs; multilateral agencies such as regional development banks; export credit agencies; and commercial banks. Cofinance funding is administered through two types of financing methods: 1) parallel cofinancing, in which the Bank and cofinanciers finance different goods and services or parts of the project; and 2) joint cofinancing, in which the Bank and cofinanciers finance expenditures from a common list of goods and services in agreed proportions, which adhere to the Bank's procurement guidelines. Cofinancing activities were developed in the Bank to help mobilize additional funding for sector-oriented programs and projects, fill funding gaps, and also foster greater international coordination to respond more rapidly to global macro-economic crises.

The first use of cofinancing in Bank operations was a joint cofinancing agreement drafted for the Mexico Power Sector Program in 1966. Initial Bank loans fell short of financing needs for projects under this program, so external funding sources were sought and renegotiated by members of the Bank's Loan Committee, cofinanciers, and the Government of Mexico. Similar agreements were negotiated thereafter for other programs and projects, including a parallel cofinancing agreement negotiated between the Bank, cofinanciers, and the Brazilian Government related to steel industry projects in 1971.

The use of cofinancing to mobilize resources significantly increased in World Bank operations during the oil and energy crisis that began in 1973. In this period, Arab/OPEC multilateral institutions emerged as a primary contributor for providing cofinancing sources. Newly founded regional multilateral institutions such as the Inter-American Development Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and the African Development Bank also emerged as valuable multilateral cofinancing partners.

In 1975, the Bank's cofinancing functions were formalized with the establishment of the Senior Adviser for cofinancing in the Front Office for the Senior Vice President of Operations (SVPOP). Regional Cofinancing Coordinators (RCC) were also established in the six Regional Vice Presidencies (RVP). The Senior Adviser for Cofinancing took lead responsibility in Bank-wide overall planning, policy making, communication, coordination, and monitoring of cofinancing operations. The RCCs were given line responsibilities of identifying operations to be cofinanced and arranging cofinancing with official sources in the Regional Programs Departments (RPD). The RCCs were also responsible for arranging cofinancing with export credit and commercial banking sources for the Regional Projects Departments. Roger Hornstein served as the Senior Adviser for Cofinancing.

In 1981, Frank Vibert succeeded Roger Hornstein as Senior Adviserfor Cofinancing in the SVPOP Front Office.

Demand for cofinancing sources grew in the late 1970s and the early 1980s with the ongoing oil crisis and emerging debt crisis. This demand strained the limited cofinancing operations in the Bank. As a result, the Vice President of Cofinancing (VPCOF) was established in May 1983. Teruyuki Ohuchi served as Vice President for VPCOF. The new VPCOF reported to the Senior Vice President, Operations (SVPOP). The VPCOF was created to strengthen and expand the Bank's cofinancing operations as a means to maintain and increase international capital flows to developing countries in times of constrained financial resources. The RPD retained line responsibilities for identifying and arranging cofinancing and also for arranging cofinancing for commercial and export credit sources. A new Regional Cofinancing Advisor was also established who would have functional control for cofinancing activities in the Region. The VPCOF was given responsibilities for:

• maintaining top-level contacts and promotion with cofinanciers;

• developing new cofinancing tools; and

• planning, coordinating, and monitoring the Bank's overall cofinancing program.

The VPCOF included the subordinate Cofinancing Advisory Unit (VPCAU), which was staffed by cofinancing advisers with expertise in commercial banking, export credits, and official financial sources.

During the establishment of VPCOF, the Japanese government emerged as the largest cofinancing contributor to the Bank by launching a number of cofinancing programs through the Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund (OECF), Japan's development aid agency, as well as the Export-Import Bank of Japan (UEXIM). This marked the beginning of strong Japanese leadership in the Bank's cofinancing operations, which extended from the 1980s into the early 2000s.

In 1983, the Bank's "B-Loan" program was launched to expand private cofinancing efforts and channel commercial bank resources to Bank operations. Shortly after, multilateral, bilateral, and export credit agency cofinancing programs were launched as part of the Japanese Grant Facility (JGF, later renamed the Japanese Policy and Human Resources Development [PHRD] Fund). In 1985, the multi-country official cofinancing (bilateral and multilateral) programs, the Special Facility for Sub-Saharan Africa (SFA) and the Consultant Trust Fund (CTF) Program, were launched.

In June 1986, Teruyuki Ohuchi was succeeded by Kunihiko Inakage as Vice President for VPCOF. In the May 1987 Reorganization, the Cofinancing Vice Presidency remained structurally unchanged but new acronyms were assigned to the Office of the Vice President (COFVP) and to the Cofinancing Advisory Unit (COFAU).

In June 1989, the COFVP was terminated and its functions were combined with the former Vice President of Financial Intermediation (VPFIS). This merger broadened cofinancing functions to include technical assistance in debt management and resource mobilization. The new combined VP was renamed the Vice President of Financial Intermediation and Cofinancing (CFSVP). The CFSVP reported to the Senior Vice President, Operations (OPNSV). CFSVP responsibilities included:

• assisting member countries in restructuring debt;

• assisting member countries with deregulation, public sector restructuring and privatization;

• advising member countries on management of their foreign financial assets and liabilities;

• procuring cofinancing arrangements from commercial and public sources;

• developing a Bank-wide strategy and capability for dealing with privatization requests; and

• developing new lending products to mobilize financial resources in commercial markets.

At the time of its establishment, the CFS had one subordinate unit, the Cofinancing and Financial Advisory Services Department (CFS), which incorporated the financial engineering functions of the former Debt Management and Financial Advisory Department (DFS) formerly located in the Vice President of Financial Intermediation (VPFIS), as well as most of the staff of the former CofinancingVice Presidency (COFVP). CFS consisted of the following units: the Cofinancing Group (CFSCO); the Financial Advisory Services Group (CFSFA); and the Private Sector Development Group (CFSPS). The CFSVP was also supported by a Front Office consisting of advisers in the following areas: commercial finance; official sources; export credits; and banking institutions.

Koji Kashiwaya assumed the role of Vice President for the new CFSVP.

In late 1989, the CFSPS was transferred from the Cofinancing and AdvisoryServices Department (CFS) to the Front Office of the CFSVP. In December 1990, the CFS Department was restructured, splitting the CFSCO into the new Official Cofinancing Group (CFSOC), and the new Private Cofinancing Group (CFSPC). In this same year, the Expanded Cofinancing Operation (ECO) program replaced the "B-Loan" program.

In 1990, the CFSVP was renamed the Vice President of Cofinancing and Advisory Services (CFSVP).

In February 1992, the CFSVP underwent a comprehensive reorganization to strengthen private sector development work and streamline the process of financial resource mobilization. This entailed building up the cofinancing and financial advisory capabilities in the regional Country Departments, which were given primary responsibility for implementing private sector development programs, and a consolidation of CFSVP's subordinate units. Specific responsibilities included:

• mobilizing official and private equity financing to cofinance Bank supported projects;

• managing and reducing the external debt of heavily indebted countries;

• developing programs for public enterprise divestiture;

• restructuring and privatizing of specific major public enterprises; and

• developing new approaches to attract private sector investment into major infrastructure projects.

The CFSVP restructuring included the merging of CFSPC and CFSPS, as well as some of the functions of the CFSFA, to create the new Private Sector Finance and Advisory Services Group (CFSPS). The responsibilities of the former CFSOC were also redefined and the unit was renamed the Official Cofinancing and Trust Fund Management Group (CFSOC). The remaining functions of CFSFA created the new Project Finance Group (CFSPF).

In April 1992, the CFSPS was further restructured, and became the Private Sector Development and Privatization Group (CFSPS).

In 1994, Hiroo Fukui succeeded Koji Kashiwaya as Vice President for CFSVP.

In March 1996, CFSVP was terminated and the subordinate CFSOC and the CFSPF staff and functions were absorbed by the new Resource Mobilization and Cofinancing Vice Presidency (RMCVP). The CFSPS staff and functions were removed from cofinancing operations and absorbed by the Private Sector Development (PSD) Department located in the Finance and Private Sector Development Vice Presidency (FPDVP).

Trust Funds

A trust fund is a financing arrangement set up with contributions from one or more donors and, in some cases, from the World Bank Group. The Bank establishes and administers trust funds as a complement to IDA and IBRD financing to promote development and aid effectiveness by leveraging its capacity and development knowledge. The Bank encourages trust funds that: draw on its operational role; include contributions from more than one donor; reinforce country capacity and ownership; and promote harmonization and alignment of donor aid modalities. Selectively, the Bank also provides specific administrative and financial services to the international community for trust funds that support work on issues of global importance and where the Bank may not perform an operational role. Trust funds differ to cofinancing arrangements in that trust funds are not limited to being tied to an existing Bank loan or grant for a program or project. Trust funds are also not generally initiated by the recipient member country like cofinancing. Many funds acquired through cofinancing arrangements are distributed into a Bank administered trust fund, but cofinancing arrangements serve as one example of a more restricted type of trust fund. Trust funds have a diversity of arrangements, which provides donors flexibility to target a variety of sectoral, regional, and global initiatives.

The earliest use of trust funds in World Bank Group operations can be traced to 1960 when the Bank administered the multi-donor Indus Basin Development Fund to help finance the Indus Basin Project in Pakistan. In the 1970s, the Bank also served as a financing partner in multiple global programs in partnership, with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and the World Health Organization (WHO). The most notable examples were, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), established in 1972, and the River Blindness (Onchocerciasis) Control Program established in 1974.

Significant growth of trust fund mobilization, however, occurred in the early-1980s. At this time, the Bank lacked a formal trust fund administrator or central authority charged with implementing, coordinating, and monitoring trust fund administration, and developing trust fund related policies, guidelines, and procedures. Instead, trust fund administration responsibilities were fragmented among multiple Bank units. In this period, trust funds fell into two broad categories: 1) cofinanced trust funds; and 2) trust funds that are not tied directly to Bank loans (non-cofinanced), but augmented or diversified the sources of funding for a wide range of activities, including studies, institutional development training, and technical assistance.

The first category, cofinanced trust funds, were tied to existing Bank loans or credits, and were arranged either through a joint or parallel cofinancing agreement. Joint cofinancing required an agreement between the Bank and the cofinancier on the expenditure of a common list of goods or services for a project, and abided by the procurement and disbursement procedures of the Bank. Agreed upon joint cofinanced funds were deposited into a Bank administered trust fund. With parallel cofinancing, the Bank and the cofinancier agreed to finance different services, goods, or parts of a project, but the cofinancier was not required to use the procurement and disbursement procedures of the Bank. This allowed for the cofinancier to disburse funds to colenders according to their own procedures, and not have to be part of a Bank administered trust fund. Parallel cofinancing funds were part of Bank administered trust funds, however, if the parallel cofinancing agreement was "untied" and the cofinancier chose to have the Bank administer funds on the cofinancier's behalf.

The second category of trust funds were not tied directly to a Bank loan (non-cofinanced). Instead, the Bank served the role of trust fund administrator either as a fiscal agent or as the Executing Agency for trust funds financed by external donors. Such trust funds included contributions from governments, private foundations, or intergovernmental organizations. Many of these trust funds were either one-time contributions, or were subject to periodic replenishments, and were also free-standing programs with their own independent administration, executive secretariat, committee structure, and funding apparatus (e.g. CGIAR and the Global Environmental Facility [GEF]). Administering trust funds as a fiscal agent simply implied the Bank was responsible for the financial management functions of accounting and disbursement for a trust fund. The role of Executing Agency was more complex in that it included accounting and disbursement functions, but also responsibilities for hiring consultants and consulting of firms, procuring goods, organizing training activities, administering project budgets, and reviewing studies and reports prepared by consultants. The Executing Agency functions not related to financial management were generally handled by program coordinators, project officers, and advisers located in the Bank's sector departments, or country program departments and country project departments located in the Regional Vice Presidencies. An executive secretariat or independent administrative unit was also usually established to administer this type of trust fund.

In 1983, the newly established Vice President of Cofinancing (VPCOF) served as a focal point for the arrangement and management of cofinanced trust funds. VPCOF evolved into the central unit responsible for the management of some of the Bank's largest pooled and multi-donor technical assistance and consultant trust funds. In the early 1980s, the Japanese Government emerged as the largest cofinancier for the Bank and took a strong leadership role in leading cofinancing operations in the Bank. This included the launch of numerous grant-based trust fund programs through their donor agencies, the Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund (OECF) and the Export-Import Bank of Japan (JEXIM). The Japanese led programs were collectively referred to as the Japanese Grant Facility (JGF).

In 1984, the Chief United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)/Trust Funds Section (LOATF) of the Loan Department (LOA) located in Vice President of the Treasurer (TREVP) was established to administer financial management (accounting and disbursement) of the Bank's trust funds, including the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) financed trust funds in where the Bank served as the Executing Agent. Kah Hie Lau served as Chief for the UNDP/Trust Fund Section. The VPCOF continued to be the unit responsible for the arrangement of cofinanced trust funds, but the LOATF handled the financial management of cofinanced trust funds.

In 1985, the multi-donor Special Facility for Sub-Saharan Africa (SFA) and the multi-donor Consultant Trust Fund (CTF) Program consisting of donors from multiple Bank member countries were launched. They were also managed by VPCOF and its subordinate Cofinancing Advisory Unit (VPCAU).

In 1986, LOA and its subordinate LOATF were transferred to the Vice President of the Controller (CTRVP). LOATF was renamed and upgraded to the Trust Funds Division (LOATF) due to the expanding use of trust funds.

In 1987, the VPCOF remained structurally unchanged but new acronyms were assigned to the Office of the Vice President (COFVP) and to the Cofinancing Advisory Unit (COFAU).

In the same year, the Resource Mobilization Department (FRM) was established in the Vice President of Financial Policy and Risk Management (FPRVP). The FRM focused on resource mobilization of official IDA concessional resources and IBRD capital resources, but also played a role in managing donor negotiations and relations related to trust funds that helped supplement the concessional lending of IDA operations. This was done in close collaboration with the COFVP, or other trust funds operations focused on providing concessional resources. For instance, the Special Facility for Sub-Saharan Africa (SFA) consisted of trust funds designed specifically to supplement IDA projects and programs. The COFVP and FRM worked closely to mobilize resources for SFA, and to help foster agreements between the Bank, borrower, and donor.

In 1989, the COFVP and the subordinate COFAU were terminated, and replaced by the Vice President of Financial Intermediation and Cofinancing (CFSVP). Within CFSVP, the new Official Cofinancing Group (CFSOC) served as the focal point for managing the Bank's cofinanced trust funds. CFSOC served as the key unit responsible for managing the technical assistance portions of the Consultant Trust Funds (CTF) Program, and the Japanese Policy and Human Resources Development (PHRD) Fund, which consolidated numerousgrant-based programs of the former Japanese Grant Facility (JGF). Specific responsibilities of CFSOC included:

• developing and maintaining institutional relations with the main donor agencies;

• establishing and monitoring formal arrangements for cofinancing so that clear operational procedures and policies are in place for cofinancing with colenders;

• assisting both potential cofinanciers and task managers in bringing together financing interests and funding needs; and

• mobilizing grant funds for consultants to be used for the Bank's operational work, and other special purposes.

John Taylor served as the Manager for CFSOC.

In same year, the Bank issued Operation Manual Statement (OMS) 4.40, Trust Funds. This statement designated the role of Trust Funds Administrator (LAOTF), and assigned this role to the reorganized Loan and Trust Fund Department (LOA). This was done to expand the responsibilities of the former LOATF Chief, strengthen trust fund policies and guidelines, consolidate the fragmented trust fund administration functions, and strengthen trust funds administration Bank wide. Specific responsibilities included:

• implementing the policies and guidelines for administering funds;

• ensuring the consistency of information given to donors on the terms and conditions on which funds are administered by the Bank;

• coordinating within the Bank to ensure compliance with Bank policies and with the specific provisions of each agreement;

• participating in negotiating agreements and clearing them before signature;

• ensuring that disbursements are for eligible countries only;

• preparing financial reports on each fund in accordance with the agreement;

• coordinating the preparation by Task Managers of implementation reports and other reporting requirements; and

• requesting the donor to replenish trust fund accounts as needed.

The new Trust Funds Administrator of the Loan and Trust Fund Department (LOA) remained in the CTRVP. Kah Hie Lau was promoted to the Trust Funds Administrator.

In1991, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) was launched. The COFVP and the FRM served as the key units in the Bank responsible for the resource mobilization and replenishment of the GEF trust funds. In the same year, the Trust Funds Administrator was transferred to the Resource Mobilization Department (FRM) located in the Vice President of Financial Policy and Risk Management (FPRVP), and its acronym changed to FRMTF.

In February 1992, the CFSVP underwent a comprehensive reorganization and the CFSOC wasrenamed the Official Cofinancing and Trust Fund Management Group (CFSOC). The newly reorganized CFSOC responsibilities included:

• administering the Japanese Policy and Human Resources Development (PHRD) Fund;

• administering the Consultant Trust Fund (CTF) Program;

• managing institutional relationships with bilateral and multilateral cofinanciers to include proactive initiatives to increase cofinancing; and

• maintaining the Bank's Cofinancing Database and CTF Management Information system.

CharlesMeissner served as the new Manager for the reorganized CFSOC.

In 1993, the Trust Funds Administrator was removed from FRM, and transferred to the Trust Funds Administration Department (CTRTA) in the Controller Vice Presidency (CTRVP).

In March 1996, CFSVP was terminated and CFSOC staff and functions as well as the Resource Mobilization Department (FRM) were absorbed by the new Resource Mobilization and Cofinancing Vice Presidency (RMCVP). CFSOC was placed in the new Cofinancing and Project Finance Department (CAP), and renamed the Official Cofinancing and Trust Funds Group (CAPOC).

The Trust Funds Administrator was transferred to the new Trust Funds Division (ACTTF) in the Accounting Department (ACT) of the Controller Vice Presidency (CTRVP), and supported the new RMCVP in financial management of trust funds, and implementing policies and guidelines related to trust fund administration.

IDA replenishment

This section focuses on the units responsible for the following functions: leading and supporting IDA replenishments negotiations with the Bank's IDA Deputies; managing the finances of IDA's concessional lending funds; managing the allocation of IDA resources; and monitoring the implementation of IDA mandated policies within Bank operations.

The International Development Agency (IDA) was established in 1960 to complement the role of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) in promoting economic development by offering concessional financing to the poorer developing countries within its membership. The IDA replenished its resources through negotiations held every three years, wherein the Bank sought donations from its wealthiest Part I member countries.

The first replenishment of IDA resources was held in 1962. The Bank's Board of Governors requested that the Board of Executive Director's assess financial requirements for IDA operations. Subsequently, the Financial Policy Committee of the Board was given the task of leading replenishment negotiations, and did so in a number of informal meetings with Part I member country leaders.

In 1965, the second replenishment was held and, much like the first replenishment, it was initiated by the Board of Governors with a request to the Board of Executive Directors. The second IDA replenishment negotiations established Part I member country representatives as the new IDA Deputies, and the formal IDA replenishment negotiations became known as the IDA Deputy Meetings. IDA replenishment negotiations included senior officials of the Bank andthe IDA Deputies.

The third replenishment was held in 1968, and the process of initiating formal negotiations by a Board of Governors request to the Executive Directors was discontinued. Formal donor meetings with the IDA Deputies where arranged by Bank management after this point. The Office of the Vice President of Sir Denis Rickett (OVPDR) established on April 1, 1968 was the unit responsible for such IDA replenishment arrangements. The OVPDR was created in conjunction with the appointment of PresidentRobert McNamara, and reported directly to him. This OVPDR was established as a liaison office of the Bank with Part I countries. Specific responsibilities included leading negotiations for IDA replenishments, and providing information on the Bank's lending programs and policies. The OVPDR was not assigned any direct responsibility for department supervision.

On October 4, 1974, with the resignation of Vice President Rickett, the OVPDR was terminated. The functions of OVPDR were absorbed by the Vice President of Finance (VPF) led by I.P.M. Cargill. The VPF was also responsible for managing the Bank's financial operations and advising the President on Bank financial policies, and consisted of the following subordinate units: the Treasurer's Department (TRE) and the Programming and Budgeting Department (PAB). The IDA replenishment function was supported by two Special Assistants in the VPF Front Office. The PAB Department's Financial Analysis Division (PABFA) was responsible for providing staff support to IDAreplenishment efforts of the Front Office assistants.

In 1977, the Financial Analysis Division (PABFA) of the PAB Department absorbed greater responsibility for supporting IDA replenishment from the former IDA Special Assistants of the VPF Front Office due to increased workload of the function, and planned retirement of one its assistants. The VPF continued to lead IDA replenishment negotiations, but was primarily supported by PABFA. Within PABFA, the IDA replenishment related functions were merged with financial policy, financial projections, and IBRD capital increase support responsibilities. Specific responsibilities of PABFA included:

• maintaining analysis of Bank Group financial policies and activities as they affect the soundness and financial needs of the institution;

• alerting management to potential financial problem conditions and proposed changes to the Bank Group's financial policies;

• providing staff support related to IBRD capital increases, including periodic reviews of the appropriate capital structure of the Bank and analysis of the size, timing, and distribution by country of increases in subscribed capital;

• providing staff support for the periodic IDA replenishment negotiations, including analysis of the size of replenishment burden-sharing arrangements, voting rights issues, method of payment, maintenance of value, and other topics;

• preparing periodic reviews of the Bank's lending rate, liquidity policy, and allocation of net income;

• preparing the sections on Bank/IDA financial position and prospects for inclusion in the annual review of the five-year program as well as for the mid-year review of operations;

• preparing standard long-term financial projections for the Bank and IDA;

• reviewing the changes in the quality of the Bank's overall loan portfolio; and

• maintaining awareness of changes in the external financial environment.

The PABFA was led by Division Chief David Bock at the time it absorbed IDA replenishment related functions.

In July 1978, VPFI.P.M. Cargill was promoted to Senior Vice President of Finance (SVPFI) to further assist the Bank President more broadly on priority areas, and serve as Acting President and Board Chairman in the absence of the President. The position of Vice President of Finance (VPF) remained, and Cargill relinquished most of his responsibilities of overseeing the operations of the Finance Complex to the new VPF Moeen Qureshi. With this change, PABFA reported to the VPF, but still supported the SVPFI, who continued to lead IDA replenishment negotiations.

In 1980, SVPFI I.P.M. Cargill retired from the Bank. Moeen Qureshi was promoted soon after as the new SVPFI, and retained the responsibility of leading IDA replenishment negotiations. The position of VPF was terminated.

At the same time, the PABFA and the Financial Studies Division (PABFS) of Programming and Budgeting Department (PAB) were transferred to the new Financial Policy and Analysis Department (FPA), which reported directly to the SVPFI. The FPA Department was assigned the following responsibilities:

• performing analytical work on Bank financial policies, and supporting the Senior Vice President, Finance in such key activities as IDA replenishment negotiations, IBRD capital increases and analyzing the financial impacts of new initiatives;

• producing long-term financial projections and plans beyond a one-year horizon;

• assessing and managing financial risks; and

• providing support to Operations in areas involving financial analysis.

The former Financial Studies Division and Programming and Budgeting Department maintained their titles in the new FPA, but their acronyms were changed to FPAFA and FPAFS, respectively. The function supporting IDA replenishment negotiations was moved to the FPAFS Division.

In 1983, the FPA reported to the new Vice President of Financial Policy, Planning, and Budgeting (FPBVP).

During the 1987 Bank-wide reorganization, the FPA was terminated. As a result, the FPAPP and FPAMA divisions were absorbed by the new Risk Management and Financial Policy Department (FRS), and the FPAFS, which maintained responsibility for IDA replenishment negotiations, was absorbed by the new Resource Mobilization Department (FRM). Both departments reported to the new Vice President of Financial Policy and Risk Management (FPRVP), which reported to the new Senior Vice President of Finance (FINSV) Ernest Stern.

FRM was given the responsibility of securing official funding necessary to fund the Bank's planned programs. Official funding sources sought by FRM included capital subscriptions by Bank shareholders for IBRD lending operations and IDA concessional resources for its lending to countries which were not creditworthy for IBRD borrowing. Specific responsibilities included:

• maintaining a positive environment for Bank funding approaches;

• developing a system for monitoring funding approaches;

• monitoring the adequacy of the Bank's capital and taking steps to replenish it;

• managing the subscription payments and the release of local currency contributions;

• replenishing IDA;

• managing donor contributions to IDA's contributions;

• exploring new facilities that use official funding; and

• analyzing the role of Bank/IDA flows in relation to aggregate aid and commercial flows.

At its inception, the FRM had the following subordinate units: the Replenishment Policy Division (FRMRP) and the Replenishment Operations Division (FRMRO). Basil Kavalasky served as Director for FRM.

In 1991, the Trust Funds Administrator Kah Hie Lau was transferred from the Loan and Trusts Funds Department (LOA) of the Vice President of Controller (CTRVP) to FRM. In 1993, the Trust Funds Administrator was removed from FRM, and transferred to the Trust Funds Administration Department (CTRTA) in the Controller Vice Presidency (CTRVP).

In 1996, the Vice President of Financial Policy and Risk Management (FPRVP) was terminated. As a result, the Risk Management and Financial Policy Department (FRS), was absorbed by the new Office of the Vice President Financial Policy and Institutional Strategy (FPIVP). The Resource Mobilization Department (FRM) was transferred to the new Resource Mobilization and Cofinancing Vice Presidency (RMCVP).

Cofinancing, trust funds, and IDA replenishment (1996-present)

In April 1996, the cofinancing, trust funds, and IDA replenishment functions were merged under the new Resource Mobilization and Cofinancing Vice Presidency (RMCVP). More specifically, the functions of the former Official Cofinancing and Trust Fund Management Group (CFSOC) and the Project Finance Group (CFSPF) of the former Vice President of Financial Intermediation and Cofinancing (CFSVP), and the functions of the Resource Mobilization Department (FRM) of the former Financial Policy and Resource Mobilization Vice Presidency (FPRVP) were absorbed by the new RMCVP. The new RMCVP was created to enable the Bank to forge a more effective partnerships with the donor community and the private sector. RMCVP focused on mobilizing funds from official and private sources to IBRD and IDA operations and services and the Global Environmental Facility (GEF). Specific responsibilities included:

• expanding resource mobilization efforts to achieve greater financial sustainability through donor support, official cofinancing, export credit, and trust funds;

• accelerating the implementation of the guarantee Program, expand the use of guarantees, and increase the pipelines of guarantee operations; and

• supporting the Bank's efforts to mainstream the trust fund activities into the Bank's processes.

At its establishment, the RMCVP consisted of the following subordinate units: the Cofinancing and Project Finance Department (CAP) and the Resource Mobilization Department (FRM). CAP consisted of the Official Cofinancing and Trust Funds Group (CAPOC) and the Project Finance and Guarantees Group (CAPPF). The FRM Department consisted of the Replenishment Operations Unit (FRMRO) and the Replenishment Policy Unit (FRMRP). CAPOC served as the main unit for cofinancing related responsibilities, which consisted of promoting and monitoring official cofinancing of Bank Group operations. CAPOC was also responsible for trust fund functions including monitoring, mobilization, and administration.

Hiroo Fukui served as Vice President for RMCVP.

Soon after the establishment of the RMCVP, the Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Debt Initiative, a debt restructuring trust fund, was launched. RMCVP served as trustee for this fund. In 1997, the global trust fund program, Development Grant Facility (DGF), was launched. The RMCVP also served as trustee for this fund.

In 1998, the RMCVP was restructured. FRM remained unchanged, but CAP functions were divided into two new departments: the Trust Fund and Cofinancing Department (TFC) and the Project Finance and Guarantees Department (PFG).

In 1999, PFG was removed from the RMCVP, and its functions were transferred to the Private Sector Development and Infrastructure Vice Presidency (PSIVP).

The early 2000s marked a significant increase in the Bank's trust fund portfolio, primarily due to the 2002 launch of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). This prompted the creation of numerous global programs and partnership trust funds to respond to the international initiatives of the MDG, including the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria (the Global Fund) and the Climate Investment Funds (CIFs), both established in 2002. The use of global programs and partnership existed prior to this period, most notably GEF and DGF, but their use rapidly expanded in the 2000s.

Furthermore, due to the growth and increasing complexity of trust funds, this period also experienced a shift in the type of trust funds arrangements used for various funds. This included the growing use of the following types of trust fund arrangements: Financial Intermediary Funds (FIFs); Bank Executed Trust Funds (BETF); and Recipient Executed Trust Funds (RETF). FIFs, in particular, saw significant expansion foster the arrangement of complex global programs and partnership trust funds. With the changing trust fund landscape, more traditional cofinancing arrangements experienced gradual decline as a source for external funding. Cofinancing, however, still remained a component of these trust fund arrangements, and the cofinancing function was integrated into broader trust funds operations.

In 2001, RMCVP was again restructured. The functions of TFC were split into two new departments: the Trust Fund Operations Department (TFO) and the Trust Fund Strategy and Donor Relations Department (TFS). FRM remained unchanged.

In June 2003, the RMCVP was terminated and its functions absorbed by the new Concessional Finance and Global Partnerships Vice Presidency (CFPVP). The responsibilities of the new CFPVP included:

• mobilizing and managing concessional and grant finance in the Bank;

• agreeing to the policy framework with which these resources are provided by donors; and

• facilitating and overseeing the robust and accountable framework of partnerships to take forward the Bank's strategic priorities.

At its establishment, the CFPVP consisted of the following subordinate departments and units: the Resource Mobilization Department (FRM); the Global Programs and Partnerships (GPP); the Trust Fund Operations (TFO); the Trust Fund Strategy and Donor Relations Department (TFS); and the Multilateral Trustee Operations (MTO).

Geoffrey Lamb served as Vice President of the CFPVP.

In 2004, the Finance and Risk Unit (CFPFR) and the Multilateral Trustee Innovative FinanceUnit (CFPMI) were added to CFPVP. In 2006, Phillippe Le Houerou succeeded Geoffrey Lamb as Vice President for CFPVP.

In 2008, the GPP and the TFO were merged to create the new Global Partnerships and Trust Fund Operations Department (CFPTO). CFPTO was assigned two subordinate units: the Global Partnership and Trust Fund Policy Unit (PTP) and the Program Administration and Management Unit (PAM).

In 2009, Axel van Trotsenburg succeeded Phillippe Le Houerou as Vice President for CFPVP. Around this time, the CFPVP was reorganized into the following subordinate units: IDA Resource Mobilization (CFPIR); the Global Partnerships and Trust Fund Operations (CFPTO); and the Multilateral Trusteeship and Innovative Financing (CFPMI).

In 2012, Joachim von Amsberg succeeded Axel van Trotsenburg as Vice President for CFPVP.

In July 2014, the CFPVP was terminated and replaced by the new Development Finance Vice Presidency (DFIVP).

The Development Finance Vice Presidency (DFIVP) absorbed the IDA replenishment, trust fund, and cofinancing related functions of the former CFPVP. It additionally absorbed functions related to IBRD capital monitoring, planning, and management from the former Vice President of Corporate Finance and Risk Management (CFRVP). The DFIVP includes the following subordinate units: the Development Finance Resource Mobilization Department (DFiRM); the Development Partner Relations Department (DFDPR); the Trust Funds and Partnerships Department (DFPTF); and the IBRD Corporate Finance Department (DFICF). Joachim von Amsberg serves as Vice President for DFIVP.

Born in Masvingo, Zimbabwe in 1942, Callisto Enias Madavo earned his Bachelor degree, Masters degree, and Ph. D. in economics from the University of Notre Dame in Indiana, U.S.A. Immediately upon completing his Ph. D. in 1969, he joined the World Bank as a Young Professional. Madavo initially worked in the Urbanization Department of the Special Projects Department: the unit responsible for large, inter-sectoral and multi-purpose projects. Madavo's subsequent positions in the World Bank Group included:

• Economist, Urban Projects Department (UBPD1), 1972-1973

• Economist, Transportation and Urban Projects Department (TRUD1), 1973-1976

• Deputy Division Chief/Division Chief, Urban Projects Department (URBD1, URBD4), 1976-1981

• Division Chief, East Asia and Pacific Regional Vice Presidency, Urban Division (EAPUR), 1981

• Assistant Director (Acting), Water Supply and Urban Development Department, Office of the Director (WUDDR), 1981-1983

• Division Chief, South Asia Regional Vice Presidency, Division A -Pakistan (ASADA), 1983-1986

• Assistant Director, East Asia and Pacific Regional Vice Presidency, Office of the Director (EAPDR), 1986-1987)

• Director, Africa Regional Vice Presidency, Africa Country Department 2 (AF2DR), 1987-1991

• Director, East Asia and Pacific Regional Vice Presidency, East Asia and Pacific Country Department 1 (EA1DR), 1991-1995

• Regional Vice President, Africa Regional Vice Presidency (AFRVP), 1996-2004

When Madavo was named Vice President of the Africa Region Vice Presidency(AFRVP) in 1996, it was as co-Vice President; Jean-Louis Sarbib was made the other Vice President of the Region. This arrangement effectively split the region into West Africa and Eastern and Southern Africa with one new VP responsible for each; Madavo oversaw the operations of Eastern and Southern Africa. This arrangement lasted until 2000 when Sarbib became the new Vice President of the Middle East and North Africa Region (MNA), leaving Madavo as the sole VP for the Africa Region until his retirement from the Bank in 2004.

After formally leaving the Bank, Madavo began teaching at Georgetown University as an adjunct professor in the School of Foreign Services. He also held roles of Special Adviser and Consultant at the World Bank from 2004 to 2007.

Madavo has consulted for a number of international organizations, including Global Fund, UNAIDS, and the African Development Bank. He has served on several working groups focused on development issues in Africa and has sat on boards of several international NGOs active in Africa.

Mr. Frank K. Vita, a U.S. national born in 1936, attended the University of Pittsburgh where he earned a Bachelor of Science (Economics) in 1964 and a Master in Public and International Affairs (MPIA) the following year. In 1966 he was a Ford Foundation Fellow at Harvard University.

Vita joined the World Bank in 1969 as a loan officer in the Eastern Africa Department (EAF). In 1972 he moved to the Latin America and Caribbean Vice Presidency (LCN) where he served in the same capacity. In June 1973 Vita took leave from the Bank to pursue studies at Harvard University.

Upon Vita's return in 1975, he joined the Development Finance Companies Department (DFC) as an Economist in the Financial Development Unit (DFCDR). The new Industrial Development and Finance Department (IDF) assumed DFC's responsibilities in 1977. Vita briefly served in the new IDF before being transferred to the Financial Division of the Western Africa Industrial Development and Finance Projects Department (WAPID) where he was promoted to Senior Operations Officer.

In 1980, Vita moved into the Bank's Finance Complex when he was named Senior Economist for Financial Operations in the Treasury Vice Presidency's Financial Operations Department (FOD). In this capacity he headed FOD's Capital Markets and Economic Studies Unit (CAMES). In June 1984 he was appointed to the position of Deputy Chief of Mission, Tokyo Office, and was the Bank's liaison with the Japanese government and financial community.

Vita joined the Bank's International Finance Corporation (IFC) in November 1985. He was located in the Office of the Executive Vice President (CEX) where he was a Manager in Corporate Development.

In 1990, Vita returned to the World Bank's Operations Complex when he was named Senior Country Officer in the Europe, Middle East, and North Africa Vice Presidency (EMENA). Vita was placed in Country Department 4 (EM4) which contained a number of former communist states that were in the process of transitioning to market economies; EM4 countries included Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. After the Bank-wide 1991 reorganization, Vita was named a Senior Operations Officer in the Europe and Central Asia Vice Presidency's (ECAVP) Country Department 2 (EC2) which was responsible for Albania, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Yugoslavia.

Vita retired from the World Bank in 1992. In 1993 he was named special advisor under the Executive Service agreement between the World Bank and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Vita worked out of USAID's Central Europe Department which was responsible for rendering advisory assistance in the areas of privatization of domestic financial institutions and commercial enterprises. It was also responsible for identifying potential projects for the World Bank Group or other financing in former communist countries.

In 1994 Vita was hired by Arthur Andersen LLP as Managing Director, Global Emerging Markets Services (GEMS). Vita's teams provided support for large-scale World Bank-financed financial institutions. Vita fulfilled contracts funded by recipient governments in Russia and the Central Asian republics. In 1997, Vita moved to PricewaterhouseCoopers (Asia) where he worked on project identification for possible World Bank funding primarily in the financial and energy sectors.

Johannes F. Linn was born on October 22, 1945 near Munich, Germany. He studied law at the Free University in Berlin before receiving a Bachelor of Arts in philosophy, politics, and economics from Oxford University in 1968 and a PhD in economics from Cornell University in 1972.

Linn joined the World Bank on January 2, 1973 as a Young Professional. During his first nine years of employment at the Bank, he was an economist in the Urban and Regional Economics Division in the Economics Department (ECDRB) and its successor the Development Economics Department (DEDRB) of the Development Policy Vice Presidency (DPS), the Bank's research unit. During this time he focused on issues of urban development policy. In 1978 Linn spent six months as a visiting researcher at the University of Munster.

In 1981, Linn moved to the operations side of the Bank when he was named Senior Economist in the East Asia and Pacific Vice Presidency's (AENVP) Division A (AEADA), which was responsible for Democratic Kampuchea, Lao People'sDemocratic Republic (PDR), Mekong Committee, Thailand, Vietnam, and liaison with the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP). In 1984 he was named a Senior Economist in the AENVP's Country Programs Department's Office of the Director (AEADR). Following the 1987 Bank-wide reorganization that combined the AENVP and the South Asia Vice Presidency (ASNVP) into a single Asia Regional Vice Presidency (ASI), Linn became the Lead Economist in the Country Department responsible for Burma, Democratic Republic of Kampuchea, Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Mekong Committee, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam (AS2).

In 1987, Linn was named Staff Director of the World Development Report 1988 (WDR). The WDR focused on public finance policies for development and reviewed trends in this sector in the world economy. He began this work within ASI but appears to have given up many of his responsibilities as Senior Chief Economist of the Region in order to focus on the WDR. In 1988 Linn returned to the research arm of the Bank when he was named Senior Economic Advisor in the Development Economics Vice Presidency (DECVP). He subsequently served as Director of DECVP's International Economics Department (IEC, 1989-1990), which focused on international finance, and trade and, between 1990 and 1991, Director of DECVP's Country Economics Department (CEC), which led country development policy design and analysis activities.

In December of 1991 Linn succeeded Joseph Wood as Vice President of the Financial Policy and Risk Management Vice Presidency (FPRVP) that contained the Risk Management and Financial Policy Department (FRS) and the Resource Mobilization Department (FRM). During this time Linn oversaw various finance-related functions including: financial policy and management; IBRD capital resource mobilization; and IDA replenishment. Linn served in this position for five years.

In 1996 Linn was named Regional Vice President of the Europe and Central Asia Vice Presidency (ECAVP).

Linn remained ECA Vice President until 2003 when he retired from the World Bank after thirty years. He frequently returned to the Bank as a consultant in subsequent years, most often for the ECAVP and the Independent Evaluation Group (IEG).

From 2003 to 2006 Linn was a Visiting Fellow at the Brookings Institution in Washington, DC and beginning in 2005 he served as an Executive Director for the Wolfensohn Center at Brookings. As of 2016 Linn is a Nonresident Senior Fellow in the Global Economy and Development Program at theBrookings Institution where his research focusses on aid effectiveness, global governance reform, and regional cooperation.

An American national born in 1938, John Nellis received his B.A. (1960), M.A. (1964), and Ph.D. (1968) in Political Economy from the Maxwell School at Syracuse University. Prior to joining the World Bank, Nellis held teaching and research positions at a number of academic institutions, including the University of Nairobi (as a Fellow of the Institute for Development Studies), Carleton University (as professor of international affairs), and the Maxwell School at Syracuse University (as professor of Development Planning and Public Administration). He also served as the representative of the Ford Foundation in North Africa during which time he conducted research and administered aid programs.

Nellis was employed by the World Bank between 1984 and 2000 during which time he dealt with a variety of development topics and sectors, including privatization, public enterprise reform, market transitioning, and governance and public-sector management issues. Upon joining the Bank in 1984, he was named Management Specialist in the Public Management Unit (PPDPS) of the Projects Policy Department (PPD). The PPDPS, then just a year old, was responsible for advising and developing strategies for improving the management of governments and government-controlled enterprises.

As part of a 1987 Bank-wide reorganization, the PPD was terminated and the functions and staff of the PPDPS were transferred to the newly established Public Sector Management and Private Sector Development Division (CECPS) located in the Country Economics Department (CEC) of the Development Economics Vice Presidency (DEC). Nellis transitioned to CECPS, as well, and was soon after named Principal Management Specialist. CECPS specifically focused on private sector development activities such as assisting in the privatization of state-enterprises, performing private sector assessments, and improving the relations between the public and private sector through regulatory reform.

A Bank-wide reorganization in 1993 resulted in the termination of CECPS. Much of its staff and functional responsibility was transferred to the Private Sector Department (PSD). Nellis was one of those transferred to PSD where he was made Manager and then, in 1994, Senior Manager. PSD did not contain internal divisions until 1997. At this point Nellis was named Senior Manager of the Department's Enterprise Group (PSDEN) which focused on country enterprise reform and privatization. His final position at the Bank was director of the PSD. Nellis officially left the Bank in 2000.

Following his official departure from the Bank Nellis became a Principal in the research and consulting firm International Analytics. In this capacity he returned to the Bank regularly as a consultant in various regional and sectoral units. He also consulted for: the International Monetary Fund (IMF); the British Department for International Development; the Development Assistance Committee of the OECD; the Asian Development Bank; Transparency International; the Egyptian Centre for Economic Studies; the Government of Bolivia; the Government of Serbia; the Government of Tanzania; and the International Institute. He also served as a Non-Resident Senior Fellow at the Center for Global Development (CGD).

Dr. Debrework Zewdie, an Ethiopian national, joined the World Bank in 1994 where she served in various positions for fifteen years. Prior to joining the Bank, Zewdie was the deputy regional director of the Africa Region for the AIDS Control and Prevention project (AIDSCAP) of Family Health International in Nairobi, Kenya. Previously, Zewdie held several public health and managerial positions focusing on reproductive health and HIV/AIDS prevention and mitigation, including head of the Immunohematology Department at the National Research Institute of Health (NRIH) in Addis Ababa, deputy director at NRIH, and later acting director. She also established and headed the Referral Laboratory for AIDS in Addis Ababa, served as program manager of Ethiopia's AIDS/STD Prevention and Control Program, and taught immunology to medical students at Addis Ababa University. She received her PhD in immunology from the University of London in 1982.

Zewdie joined the Bank in 1994 as population, health, and nutrition specialistin the department of Population, Health, and Nutrition (PHN) and was promoted to senior PHN specialist in the newly formed Human Development Department. In mid-1997, she moved to the Africa Regional Vice Presidency to become the lead population and reproductive health specialist for the Global HIV/AIDS Coordinator team (AFTH1), serving until June 1999.

From 1999 to 2001, she was the founder and manager of the AIDS Campaign Team for Africa (ACTAfrica, AFRHV) a unit responsible for developing and overseeing the Bank's Multi-Country HIV/AIDS Program (MAP) for Africa with its US$1 billion fund.

In late 2001, Zewdie was selected as adviser for the new Global HIV/AIDS Program, Human Development Network Vice Presidency (HDNVP), which began operations in January 2002 with a mandate to initiate and support the Bank's multi-sectoral response to the epidemic. The key functions of the unit were to: strengthen global learning and knowledge sharing on approaches and best practices to HIV/AIDS; work with partners of the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) to monitor and evaluate HIV/AIDS-related activities at the country level, such as the Multi-Country AIDS Programs (MAP); and support the region's operations. She was responsible for providing strategic direction for the program and coordinating resource mobilization efforts of the Bank's HIV/AIDS work with more than US$2 billion committed through grants, loans, and credits to national and regional programs. During this time, Zewdie led the formulation of the World Bank Group's global strategy on HIV/AIDS and the Global HIV/AIDS Program of Action. By 2003, the unit was restructured as the Global HIV/AIDS Program Team (HNDGA) under HDN with three other teams: Education Team (HDNED), Health, Nutrition Population (HDNHE) Team, and Social Protection Team (HDNSP). She was promoted to director in 2004.

In mid-2008, Zewdie was seconded to The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria in Geneva for one year. Following a brief return to her position as HDNGA director, Zewdie accepted the position of deputy executive director and chief operating officer for The Global Fund in 2010. Zewdie returned to the Bank in 2013 for one year to serve as senior adviser to President Kim's Special Envoy for the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), situated in HDNVP, then the Health, Nutrition, and Population Department Global Practice Director's Office (GHNDR) after the 2014 Bank-wide reorganization.

James (Jim) H. Jennings was born on November 4, 1928 in the state of Tennessee, USA. After serving in the US Navy from 1946 to 1948, Jennings graduated from Vanderbilt University in 1952 with a BA in Economics. Prior to his employment at the World Bank Group he worked as a stockbroker for Merrill Lynch.

Jennings joined the World Bank in 1963 as a financial analyst in the Industry Division of the Technical Operations Department (TOD). He maintained the position of financial analyst in various project and sector departments through June 1976:

? Projects Department, Water Supply Division (PRJWS,1965 - 1966)

? Projects Department, Public Utilities Division (PRJPU, 1967 - 1968)

? Public Utilities Projects Department - Water Supply Division (PBP, 1969); and

? Public Utilities Projects Department - Office of the Director (PBPDR, (1969 - 1975).

From 1976 to October 1980, Jennings served as assistant director in the Personnel Management Division (PMD).

In October 1980, Jennings moved to a regionaloperations unit for the first time when he joined the Latin America and Caribbean Projects Department (LCP) as the assistant director. LCP was responsible for the regional vice presidency's sector departments. In this role, Jennings oversaw the work of the region's transportation and energy sector staff and supported LCP Director S. M. L. van der Meer.

In July 1987, Jennings was named director of the Loan and Trust Funds Department (LOA) in the Office of the Vice President and Controller (VPCTR). He served in this position through January 1991 at which point he retired from the World Bank Group.

Jennings died on October 10, 2015 in Bethesda, Maryland.

Olga B. Jonas, born in 1954, joined the World Bank Group in 1983 through the Young Professionals program. Her career as an economist and later adviser at the Bank spanned over thirty years. From 1985, Jonas served as an economist in the West Africa Division (WA1DA) of the Africa Regional Vice Presidency. She was a senior economist in the Country Operations Division (AF5CO) between 1987 to 1993 where she led policy reform operations and analytical work. In 1994, she transferred to the Resource Mobilization Department, Replenishment Operations Division (FRMRO) where she was a principal economist and worked on several International Development Association (IDA) replenishments and related policies. In early 2002, Jonas joined the Office of the Vice President, Operations Policy and Country Services (OPCVP) as an economic adviser. She was responsible for operational policy issues including small states, the international task force on small states, and emergency responses. From 2006 until her retirement in 2016 while still an economic adviser, Jonas served as the avian and human influenza response coordinator responsible for managing the Bank's program to reduce pandemic threats in collaboration with external and internal partners. She maintained this role first within OPC units (2006 - 2009) and then in the Human Development Network (HDN) from July 2009 and its successor, Health, Nutrition, and Population Department Global Practice (GHN). Under HDN and GHN, she served in the following units: Office of the Vice President and Head of Network (HDNVP); Network Operations (HDNOP); Health, Nutrition and Population Team (HDNHE); new Office of the Director (GHNDR) after the Bank-wide 2014 reorganization; and Health, Nutrition, and Population Europe and Central Asia Region (GHN03).

Prior to joining the Bank, Jonas held positions at the Woodrow Wilson School at Princeton, the Bank for International Settlements (BIS), and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). She received her Bachelor of Arts (BA) at Williams College studying political economy and geology, and at Princeton she received a Master of Public Administration (MPA) in 1979 and Master of Arts (MA, ABD) in the field of international trade and finance, labor economics, and urban economics, in 1983.

Maurice Strong, a Canadian national, joined the World Bank Group (WBG) in July 1995 as senior adviser to President James Wolfensohn in the Office of the President (EXC). Strong arrived at the World Bank Group with an extensive history in both the private and public sectors, the latter including various positions at the United Nations (UN), including as the first head of the UN's Environment Programme (UNEP). In addition to a successful career in the energy sector, Strong also helped create and was an earlyleader of the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and Canada's national oil company Petro-Canada.

Strong's initial months at the WBG overlapped with his previous position as chairman of Ontario Hydro; his obligations to Ontario Hydro mostly concluded in November 1995 at which point he joined the Bank Group on a more full-time basis. However, while at the Bank Group, he also held other external roles, including chairman of the Earth Council and the World Resources Institute and director of a number of corporations and organizations.

As senior adviser to the WBG President, Strong reported directly to President Wolfensohn. His work program was broad but with an emphasis on the environment and energy sectors in Bank Group operations. Areas of responsibility included:

? Advising on Bank Group decision-making processes with respect to policies, delegation of authorities, projects, and other decisions related to commitment of funds;

? Providing recommendations on approaches to liaison with nongovernmental organizations (NGOs);

? Developing and improving working relationships with the UN and its agencies;

? Developing methodologies that reflect practices in the private sector;

? Maintaining a "project watch list" which included those WBG projects that were sensitive or potentially controversial due to environmental and social concerns.

In January 1997, Strong was appointed senior adviser to UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan on the UN's reform process. He maintained his advisory role at the Bank Group, but on a reduced basis. He would depart the Bank Group entirely by June 2000.

This fonds contains the records of temporary bodies comprised of Bank staff from various inter-departmental units that were established to address a Bank-wide issue or an issue directly affecting one or more major units of the Bank.

Gloria Davis was the first anthropologist hired by the World Bank. She specialized in Southeast Asia, receiving her Ph.D. from Stanford University in 1975 with a dissertation on Parigi: A Social History of the Balinese Movement to Central Sulawesi, 1907-1934. She then taught anthropology for three years at Yale University. In 1978 Davis joined the World Bank's Indonesia Transmigration and Land Settlement Program, where she became part of the team assessing the Bank's support for transmigration projects in Indonesia. This led to the publication of the major report, Indonesia Transmigration Program Review, in 1981. In 1984 Davis became the senior operations office in the agriculture division of the East Asia and Pacific Region. She participated in various missions, often to Indonesia but also to Fiji in 1984. During this period she lead the review of the entire Indonesia transmigration sector, culminating in a major report, Indonesia Transmigration Sector Review, in 1986. Following the general reorganization of the World Bank in 1987, Davis became the chief of the Environment Division of the Asia Technical Department. In 1990 she wrote another major study, Indonesia: Sustainable Development of Forests, Land and Water. She became chief of the Social Policy and Resettlement Division in the Environment Department in 1993 and director of the Social Development Department from 1997 until 2000. Davis retired from the Bank in 2000 but continued to serve as a consultant until 2004. Gloria Davis was born in 1943 in Minneapolis, Minnesota. She died in 2005.

Activities related to the environment sector were initiated in 1970 when President McNamara announced that he had created the post of environmental adviser. James Lee was named to the post and would remain in the position until his retirement from the Bank in 1987. The Office of Environmental Affairs (OEA) was subsequently formed and placed in the Projects Advisory Staff (PAS) of the Projects Staff, Vice Presidency. The Office's name would briefly change to the Office of Environmental and Health Affairs (OEHA) in or around 1977 and then, permanently, to the Office of Environmental and Scientific Affairs (OESA) in 1983 or 1984.

Throughout the 1970s the OEA was provided with few staff or resources and little influence. While the majority of the Office's resources were directed towards reviews of Bank projects, its five stated objectives were to:

• ensure that development projects did not 'unduly' harm the environment and social well-being of a country;

• develop increased awareness of environmental problemsassociated with the development of developing countries;

• marshal the necessary resources and expertise to study the problem;

• encourage research and training in that area; and

• improve information and technical cooperation among countries.

  Bank projects related to environmental protection, rehabilitation, or enhancement began in earnest in 1974. These included projects related to water pollution, forestry, soil conservation and anti-desertification, air pollution, wildlife, range-management, and solid waste disposal. However, guidance and advice was generally provided by departments within the Vice President, Central Projects (CPSVP). The OEA maintained its function as project reviewer. Its agenda did, however, extend into areas that were not specifically covered by other sectoral departments in the CPSVP such as health, resettlement, and the rights of indigenous peoples.

The OEA would also provide guidance for project planning through training and publications. In 1974 it published a handbook entitled Environmental, Health and Human Ecological Considerations in Economic Projects and in 1975 it produced Guidelines on Environmental Dimensions of Projects. In 1980 the OEA, together with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), released the Declaration of Environmental Policies and Procedures Relating to Economic Development. In 1984, the Bank introduced a new Operational Manual Statement and, for the first time, it set out Bank guidelines on the environmental review of projects.

The OEA continued to exercise a small amount of power and influence throughout the early and mid-1980s. However, during the Bank-wide reorganization that took place in 1987, the Environment Department (ENV) was created within the Vice President, Sector Policy and Research (PRE). Kenneth Piddington was named its first director in 1988. The Department was placed on the same level as other sector departments. At the time of its establishment, the Department had three divisions: the Environmental Operations and Strategy Division (ENVOS), the Economics and Policy Division (ENVEP), and the Environmental Systems and Technology Division (ENVST).

The Department's role was to formulate Bank-wide policy and strategy for the full range of environmental issues affecting development that arise from the exploitation of natural resources; at the time, this also included issues related to resettlement and migration. Specifically, its stated roles and responsibilities were to:

• conduct an integrated program of research, policy analysis and operational support on environmental issues, and to formulate Bank policies to account for environmental issues in all of the Bank's sectors of operation;

• enhance the Bank's intellectual leadership on environmental issues;

• lead the development of new initiatives for the environment, and to contribute to the development of new, environmentally sound Bank policies and products;

• define the Bank's objectives, policies and products in the sub-sector of forestry;

• define the Bank's objectives and to improve its methodologies and practices with regard to environmental concerns;

• manage and disseminate the results of the ex post evaluation of the environmental consequences of the Bank's policies and operations;

• liaise with groups, agencies and senior professional leaders actively working on environmental issues;

• participate in appropriate committees, including the sector policy working group and country strategy working group;

• collaborate closely with other Policy, Planning and Research (PPR) Departments in formulating environmental policies for the Bank's operations; and

• help recruit and train environmental specialists.

The Environment Department, like the other sector Departments in the PRE, had no operational responsibilities.

As part of the increased focus placed on environmental impact and review, four regional environment divisions (REDs) were established. The new offices in the four regional technical departments would each oversee one or two regions and would review all projects and oversee the implementation of environmental measures included in Bank-supported projects. The divisions were given 'sign-off authority' which meant that a project could not go forward for approval until it had been cleared by the RED division chief. In addition, REDs would work to identify new advances in resource management and help with institution-building through close contact with national environmental offices.

In December, 1988, the ENVEP and ENVST Divisions of the Environment Department were replaced by the Environmental Policy Research Division (ENVPR) and a Special Environmental Program (ENVSE). Then, on September 1, 1990, the ENVOS was terminated and replaced by the Environmental Programs and Assessment Division (ENVAP). This reflected a reorientation of the work program away from ad hoc operational support, necessitated by the newness of the subject and the shortage of qualified operational staff, toward provision of guidelines based on thorough reviews of the Bank's environmental work. In particular, the new Division would focus on such crosscutting issues as environmental assessment of projects and integration of environmental factors into the country economic and sector programs.

On December 1, 1991, President Lewis Preston's first reorganization abolished all Senior Vice-Presidencies. The new Sector and Operations Policy Vice Presidency (OSP) was created and adopted functions previously supervised by Senior Vice Presidents, including the Environment Department.

In 1991, the Environment Department's Global Environment Unit (ENVGC), a unit to coordinate Bank-related activities of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol (MLF), was created in the Department. The GEF was sponsored jointly by the World Bank, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the UNEP. Its purpose is to provide funds to developing countries for projects that contribute to the solution of global environmental problems. The Bank was initially assigned the chairmanship of the Facility and administered two trust funds - the Ozone Projects Trust Fund and the Global Environment Trust Fund - to be applied to several priority areas of global environmental problems, including: the reduction of CFC emissions to protect the ozone layer of the atmosphere; the reduction of greenhouse gases; improved management of tropical forests; and reducing pollution of international waters. Since July of 1991 the Bank has also served as one of four implementers of the MLF, the financial mechanism of the Montreal Protocol (MP). The ENVGC acts as the Bank's Montreal Protocol Operations Team and is responsible for coordinating efforts of other Bank staff and local partners to assist countries in meetingtheir obligations under the MP.

When the GEF was established in April of 1991, it initially reported to the Senior Vice President, Policy, Research and External Affairs (PRESV); a GEF Administrator's Unit (ENVGE) was assigned to the Environment Department. After the December 1, 1991, reorganization and the termination of the PRESV, the Director of the Environment Department was designated Chairman of the GEF and the ENVGC was established. On January 1, 1993, the GEF Coordination Unit was upgraded to a division while maintaining its previous acronym. In 1994 the GEF was restructured and moved out of the World Bank. However, the Bank became the Trustee of the GEF Trust Fund and continues to provide administrative services out of the Environment Department.

Throughout, the Bank served and continues to serve as a coordinating agency for Bank-implemented GEF and MP projects. As of 2012, the World Bank's GEF coordination activities are carried out by the Environment Department's GEF Coordination Team. Its responsibilities include:

• management of the Bank's GEF corporate program;

• institutional relations;

• Bank - GEF project policies and procedures;

• Outreach, knowledge management and external relations;

• Budget management and finance; and

• Monitoring and evaluation.

Effective January 1, 1993, the Department was again restructured as part of a larger, Bank-wide reorganization of sector policy and support units. The larger reorganization involved the creation of three new thematic vice presidencies tosucceed the terminated OSP: Environmentally Sustainable Development (ESD); Human Resources Development and Operations Policy (HRO); and Finance and Private Sector Development (FPD). The Environment Department became one of the ESD's subordinate departments along with: the Agriculture and Natural Resources Department (AGR); the Transportation, Water and Urban Development Department (TWU); and the Secretariat of the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). Each sector department maintained the following functions:

• prepare policies, guidelines, standards, handbooks and analytical tools relevant to the sector;

• identify, codify and disseminate best practices and lessons of experience, and evaluate weaknesses;

• provide advice to the Regions as needed;

• monitor and track work in the sectors assigned in order to identify generic issues and identify, evaluate and influence trends and patterns;

• perform surveys of experience and practice within the Bank and elsewhere, and developinnovative approaches;

• participate in Bank-wide efforts to assess skill requirements, and to upgrade skills through recruitment, training, orientation, seminars, newsletters, etc.;

• represent the Bank to external communities of interest; and

• maintain an awareness of relevant external practices and viewpoints.

Restructuring of the Environment Department included the termination of the ENVPR and ENVAP and transfer of their functions to the new Social Policy and Resettlement Division (ENVSP) and Land, Water and Natural Habitats Division (ENVLW), respectively. The new Pollution and Environmental Economics Division (ENVPE) was also established.

Four years later, in 1997, the thematic Vice Presidencies were reorganized to strike a better balance between country focus and sectoral excellence. To facilitate sharing of expertise and knowledge, the Bank established networks that linked Bank-wide communities of staff working in the same field across organizational boundaries and with external partners. The networks formed a virtual overlay on the existing Bank organization, and were intended to link staff working in the same sectors throughout the Bank, whether the staff was located in the Regions, in the Central Vice-Presidencies' Sector Departments, or other Vice-Presidencies.

Each of the three thematic Central Vice-Presidencies was transformed into the central units, or anchors, of each network and consisted of the existing sector departments. On a Bank-wide basis, sector specialists were grouped into regional sector units or into central sector departments which worked with country departments in a matrix relationship. Staff from the central sector departments could become part of the regional operational teams when their sectoral expertise was required. The work programs of Network staff focused on:

• global knowledge - putting the best development knowledge in the hands of Bank task teams; ensuring that the knowledge base was accessible to external clients; and contributing to the growth of the knowledge base;

• enhanced skills - developing and providing content to training courses; establishing professional and technical standards for professional development;

• shared strategies - assisting regional and central units to develop a common sector agenda, and ensuring that skills are effectively deployed across the entire network. Network leadership assumed responsibility for global programs, sector strategy development and evaluation, strategic partnerships, and learning and dissemination;

• best teams and best practices - improving the Bank's flexibility and mobility by building stronger task teams and delivering higher quality products;

• institutional initiatives - providing substantial support for new Bank-wide initiatives, such as Social Development, Rural Development, Financial Sector, Anti-corruption, Human Resources, and Knowledge Partnerships.

The result of the 1997 restructuring was four networks: the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Network (ESSD); the Finance, Private Sector Development, and Infrastructure Network (FPD); the Human Development Network (HDN); and the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network (PRM). The Environment Department retained its name and component parts and was situated within the ESSD.

On January 1, 2007, the Energy Department was moved to the Sustainable Development Network (SDN). The SDN officially came into existence on July 1, 2006, and was operationally functional as of January 1, 2007. It was formed through the integration of ESSD and Infrastructure (INF). Along with the Environment Department, SDN includes the following units or departments: Agricultural and Rural Development Department (ARD); Concessional and Sub-National Finance (CSF); Finance, Economics and Urban Development (FEU); Sustainable Energy (SEG); Social Development (SDV); and Transport, Water, and Information and Communication Technologies (TWI).

Lester Nurick was born in New York City on December 2, 1914. He graduated from City College of New York in 1934 and later Brooklyn Law School in 1937. After graduation, Nurick practiced law at the firm of Evans, Rees, and Orr in New York City from 1938 to 1941. In 1941, Nurick moved to Washington D.C., and served in the position of Senior Attorney for the Public Utilities Division of the U.S. Government Securities and Exchange Commission from 1941 to 1943.

In 1943, Nurick was drafted into the United States Army tank corps. He later joined the Judge Advocate General's Department Officer Candidate School (JAG OCS), and eventually served as the Chief of the International Law Branch from 1943 to 1946.

In 1946, Nurick joined the legal department of the World Bank. He first served as Counsel from 1946 to 1968, and later as the Associate General Counsel from 1968 to 1979. From 1979 to 1980, he took over the roles of Vice President and General Counsel. In his time at the World Bank, Nurick helped establish the International Finance Corporation (IFC) in 1956, the International Development Association (IDA) in 1960, and the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) in 1966. He specialized in the questions of privileges and immunities of international organizations, taxation and finance (Bond issuances), and staff compensation issues. Nurick retired from the World Bank in 1980, but continued to work as a legal consultant afterwards.

After retiring from the World Bank, Nurick became a partner at the law firm Wilmer, Cutler, and Pickering. He also taught international law courses at George Washington University Law School, and served as guest lecturer at various law schools and universities.

Nurick passed away on 9 October 2014 in Potomac, Maryland.

Functional responsibility for urban development activities was first articulated in the World Bank's organizational structure after the November 1, 1968, reorganization of Bank departments and the creation of the Special Projects Department (SPP). The Special Projects Department began operations in October of 1969 and was responsible for inter-sectoral, multi-purpose and very large projects. The Urbanization and Regional Projects Department (SPPRB) was one of the three Departmental divisions.

The three departments of the Special Projects Department were responsible for:

• identifying, appraising and supervising projects;

• carrying out research and monitoring developments in its sectors;

• providing advice to the area departments; and

• cooperating with other international agencies, such as the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), on programs of common interest.

The Special Projects Department was terminated as part of a Bank-wide reorganization in October, 1972. In order to more effectively fuse country knowledge and sector skills, sectors with a sufficient number of experts and an established lending program were largely decentralized; while maintaining a centralized core staff of Department advisors, the majority of staff were dispersed to regional project departments in newly established regional vice presidencies. The remaining centralized staff made up the sector operating departments and performed advisory services for the regions. Because of its small number of staff, the urban sector of the former Special Projects Department remained centralized within the newly formed Vice President, Central Projects (CPSVP), and was given the name Urban Projects Department (UBP). As a centralized operating projects department (COPD), the Department provided a full operational package of technical services to the regions and was responsible not only for policy formulation and quality control, but also for the planning, direction and supervision of project and economic sector work. On the date of its establishment, the Urban Projects Department comprised two departments: Operations Division I (UBPD1) and Operations Division II (UBPD2).

On October 1, 1973, the Urban Projects Department was merged with the Transportation Department (TRP) to form the Transportation and Urban Projects Department (TRU). The Department continued to report to the Vice President, Central Projects (CPSVP). However, transportation projects continued to function as a sector department, performing only advisory services for the regionsat their request and also formulating policies and quality control. The Department's urban project functionality continued to act as a centralized operating projects department. The Department maintained two Urban-related divisions - Urban Projects I (TRUD1) and Urban Projects II (TRUD2) - along with a Transport Research Division (TRURS). On February 1, 1976, a third urban-related operational division, Urban Projects III (TRUD3), was established in anticipation of an expanded role for the Department.

On June 1, 1976, staff working on urban projects were separated from those working on transportation projects and re-established as an independent Urban Projects Department (URB). It remained a centralized operating projects department and, as such, it continued to be responsible not only for policy formulation and quality control, but also for the planning, direction and supervision of project and economic sector work. This organizational restructuring was undertaken as part of the implementation of the Bank'snew Urban Poverty Program. The Program, announced in President McNamara's 1975 speech to the Board of Governors, was an interdepartmental Task Group chaired by Urban Projects Department director Mr. E.V.K. Jaycox and was designed to develop an Urban Poverty Action Program. Its oversight led to a significant increase in Department workload, as it became responsible for coordinating input of all organizational units involved in the Program as well as designing new policies, methods and projects to alleviate urban poverty.

At the date of its re-establishment in 1976, the Urban Projects Department was composed of the following divisions: Urban Division I (URBD1), Urban Division II (URBD2), Urban Division III (URBD3), the Sites and Services Monitoring Unit (URBMO), and the Operations Review and Support Unit (URBOR). The latter was responsible for supervising the Urban Poverty Program. By October of 1978, it was determined that the Department's policies, methods and standards were sufficiently mature to permit regionalization. Consequently, a significant amount of organizational restructuring took place during the following year in preparation for regionalization. On January 1, 1979, realignment of the Department's three operational divisions took place. Division I was assigned responsibility for Latin America, while Division II was assigned responsibility for Europe, Middle East, and North America as well as South Asia and Division III was given responsibility for East Asia and the Pacific. On or around this time a fourth operational division, Urban Division IV (URBD4), was created and given responsibility for Eastern and Western Africa. Also, on July 1, 1979, a new Tourism Advisory Service (URBTO) was established in the Urban Department, taking on some of the functions of the terminated Tourism Projects Department (TOU).

Regionalization of Urban Projects Department divisions began in July of 1979 when Division I of the Urban Projects Department was moved to the Latin America and Caribbean Region (LAC). In July of 1980, Division III was transferred to the East Asia and Pacific Region (AEN). At the same time, the Europe, Middle East, and North America responsibilities were separated from South Asia within Division II in preparation for the divisions' transfer to regional departments. Transfer of these two sections of Division II occurred on January 1, 1981. In March of the same year Division IV was split to form independent divisions for Eastern Africa and Western Africa in preparation for their regionalization. Transfer to regional departments occurred in August 1, 1981, for Eastern Africa Region (EAN) and October 1, 1981, for Western Africa Region (EAN). This concluded the regionalization of the Urban Projects Department.

In mid-1981, the Tourism Advisory Service (URBTO) was terminated. Some of its functions were transferred to the Tourism Advisor in the Front Office of the Urban Department (URBDR). In February of 1982, after the transformation of the Central Projects Staff (CPS) into the Operations Policy Staff (OPS), the Department began to report to the Vice President, Operations Policy (OPSVP).

On July 1, 1983, the Urban Projects Department was merged with the water supply functions of the former Transportation and Water Department (TWD) to form the new Water Supply and Urban Development Department (WUD). The Department continued to report to the Vice President, Operations Policy (OPSVP). The Department operated as a sector department with responsibility for operations and development policy formulation, research,operational support and quality control for project and sector work. Anthony Churchill, who had taken over from E.V.K. Jaycox as the Urban Projects Department (URB) director on October 15, 1979, was named director of Department; Ping-Cheung Loh would take over on July 1, 1986.

The structure of the Department comprised an Operations Support and Research Division (WUDSR), which in turn comprised an Operations Research Unit (WUDOR) and the UNDP-affiliated Water Supply and Sanitation Unit (WUDWS) and Applied Research and Technology Unit (WUDAT). On October 1, 1985, the Department was reorganized to bring the policy advisors together under the Senior Advisor heading of the Operations Policy and Research Staff (WUDOS), and the rest of the staff under the Chief of the renamed Operations Research and Policy Division (WUDOD).

On July 1, 1987, a Bank-wide reorganization resulted in the termination of almost all organizational units. A new department, the Infrastructure and Urban Development Department (INU), incorporated the previous Water Supply and Urban Development Department and Transportation Department, and was placed in the Sector Policy and Research Vice-Presidency (PRE, then, after January 1, 1990, the PRS). The PRE had no responsibility for managing operational activities but, rather, focused on operational support, the formulation of Bank-wide sector policies and overseeing the ex post evaluation of Bank-wide sector work and lending. The units within the PRE concentrated on policy creation and analysis, support for operations and sectoral research for emerging priority areas of the Bank.

The Infrastructure and Urban Development Department comprised three divisions: Transport Division, Urban Development Division, and Water and Sanitation Division. The Department was responsible for:

• developing, in consultation with the Regions, priorities for research and policy on key issues in urban development;

• conducting policy analyses, research, external liaison, operational support, and related quality enhancement activities on various economic, environmental, institutional and management issues;

• advising on urban development issues in the design of country strategies, and in adjustment and sector operations;

• providing operational support to strengthen links among research, policy and projects;

• reviewing annual performance of Bank operations in the urban sector; and

• disseminating research results and policy studies for the sector and organizing and conducting appropriate training seminars on emergingissues in the sector.

On December 1, 1991, President Lewis Preston's first reorganization abolished all Senior Vice-Presidencies. The new Sector and Operations Policy Vice Presidency (OSP) was created and adopted functions previously supervised by Senior Vice Presidents, including the Infrastructure and Urban Development Department. On January 1, 1993, as part of a larger initiative to align the Bank's organization with the priority areas of its poverty reduction effort, the Sector and Operations Policy Vice Presidency was terminated. It was replaced by three new thematic vice presidencies: Human Resources Development and Operations Policy (HRO), Finance and Private Sector Development (FPD), and Environmentally Sustainable Development (ESD).

On January 1, 1993, the urban development function was placed in the newly created Transportation, Water and Urban Development Department (TWU). The Department's first director was Louis Y. Pouliquen. The Department was organized within the Environmentally Sustainable Development Vice Presidency alongside three other sector or thematic departments: the Agriculture and Natural Resources Department (AGR), Environment Department (ENV), and the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Secretariat. At the time of its creation, the Transportation, Water and Urban Development Department had the following divisions: the Transportation Division (TWUTD), the Urban Development Division (TWURDS), the Water and Sanitation Division (TWUWS), and the UNDP/WorldBank Water and Sanitation Program (TWUWU).

Each Sector Department was responsible for the following:

• preparing policies, guidelines, standards, handbooks and analytical tools relevant to the sector;

• identifying, codifying and disseminating best practices and lessons of experience, and evaluating weaknesses;

• providing advice to the Regions as needed;

• monitoring and tracking work in the sectors assigned in order to identify generic issues and identifying, evaluating and influencing trends and patterns;

• performing surveys of experience and practice within the Bank and elsewhere, and develop innovative approaches;

• participating in Bank-wide efforts to assess skill requirements, and to upgrade skills through recruitment, training, orientation, seminars, newsletters, etc.;

• representing the Bank to external communities of interest;

• maintaining an awareness of relevant external practices and viewpoints.

Four years later, in 1997, the thematic Vice-Presidencies were reorganized to strike a better balance between country focus and sectoral excellence. To facilitate sharing of expertise and knowledge, the Bank established networks that linked Bank-wide communities of staff working in the same field across organizational boundaries and with external partners. The networks formed a virtual overlay on the existing Bank organization, and were intended to link staff working in the same sectors throughout the Bank, whether the staff was located in the Regions, in the Central Vice-Presidencies' SectorDepartments, or other Vice-Presidencies.

Each of the three thematic Central Vice-Presidencies was transformed into the central units, or anchors, of each network and consisted of the existing sector departments. On a Bank-wide basis, sector specialists were grouped into regional sector units or into central sector departments which worked with country departments in a matrix relationship. Staff from the central sector departments could become part of the regional operational teams when their sectoral expertise was required. The work programs of Network staff focused on:

• global knowledge - putting the best development knowledge in the hands of Bank task teams; ensuring that the knowledge base was accessible to external clients; and contributing to the growth of the knowledge base;

• enhanced skills - developing and providing content to training courses; establishing professional and technical standards for professional development;

• shared strategies - assisting regional and central units to develop acommon sector agenda, and ensuring that skills are effectively deployed across the entire network. Network leadership assumed responsibility for global programs, sector strategy development and evaluation, strategic partnerships, and learning and dissemination;

• best teams and best practices - improving the Bank's flexibility and mobility by building stronger task teams and delivering higher quality products;

• institutional initiatives - providing substantial support for new Bank-wide initiatives, suchas Social Development, Rural Development, Financial Sector, Anti-corruption, Human Resources, and Knowledge Partnerships.

The result of the 1997 restructuring was four networks: the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Network (ESSD); the Finance, Private Sector Development, and Infrastructure Network (FPD); the Human Development Network (HDN); and the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network (PRM). The Transportation, Water and Urban Development Department (TWU) retained its nameand component parts and was situated within the Finance, Private Sector Development, and Infrastructure Network (FPSI).

The Department again retained its name and component parts when, in 1999, the Finance, Private Sector Development, and Infrastructure Network became the Private Sector Development and Infrastructure (PSI) Network. In 2001, however, activities related to water were removed and joined with energy to form the Energy and Water Department (EWD). The newly formed Transport and Urban Development Department (TUD) remained in the Private Sector Development and Infrastructure Network until it was moved into the Infrastructure Network (INF) in 2003. On January 1, 2007, urban development functionality was moved into the Finance, Economics and Urban Department (FEU) and placed in the Sustainable Development Network (SDN).

The concept for the World Bank Institute (WBI, formerly the Economic Development Institute [EDI]) originated in the early 1950s. Bank staff recognized that the knowledge and practical experience they had accumulated should be shared and that those who would benefit most from it were key people in the governments of developing countries. In 1952, President Black appointed a committee to consider the possibility of creating an Institute of Advanced Studies in Economic Development and to make recommendations on that proposal to the Staff Loan Committee. A Report of Committee to Consider Bank Sponsorship of Institute of Advanced Studies in Economic Development was submitted to the Staff Loan Committee on July 9, 1952. Subsequently, cooperation in the form of operational and financial support from external agencies was sought; a report prepared by Bank staff entitled Preliminary Proposal for an Economic Development Institute (1953) was circulated to various government agencies, educational institutions, and private foundations. As a result, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Ford Foundation became involved in the endeavor, agreeing to provide half of the budget for the first three years of the Institute's operation.

The Economic Development Institute was established by the World Bank in 1955 and officially opened on January 9, 1956, on a two-year trial run basis. A.K. Cairncross, Professor of Applied Economics and Director of the Department of Social and Economic Research at the University of Glasgow, had been invited to develop the Institute in 1954 and was subsequently named the first Director of the EDI.

The Institute's objective was to help promote international development through the training of mid- and high-level officials from developing countries. Training focused on planning and managing national investments more effectively through the mobilization of knowledge and experience accumulated by the World Bank. The Bank conceived of EDI as an instrument to improve developing country governments' capacities to manage and direct the development process. In its operations it aimed to fulfill its objective through three major functions: training; institution building; and publishing.

In May 1957, the Executive Directors voted to establish the Institute as a permanent activity of the Bank. For its first two years, EDI was included as a part of the Technical Assistance and Liaison Staff but with its new permanent status it was to be considered a separate unit comparable to other Bank departments. On January 1, 1962, the Institute started reporting to the Development Services Department (DSD). However, the Institute regained its independent status and officially became a Bank department on July 27, 1964.

During its first seven years, until 1962, the EDI offered a single six-month general course that focused on the formulation and administration of policies, programs, and projects related to economic development. There were fourteen participants in the Institute's first year; in subsequent years the number of participants rose but would be limited to twenty-five. Potential participants were nominated by their respective governments and selection of participants was undertaken by an admissions committee composed of senior Bank officials. Participants who completed the courses given by the EDI received certificates as Fellows of the Institute. The EDI teaching staff consisted of Bank personnel as well as instructors from universities, government agencies, and research centers. Bank staff members were often invited to conduct sessions on subjects on which they had particular knowledge. External guest lecturers were also invited to guest lecture.

In the early 1960s, a movement towards the contextualization of courses and curricula began, as different problems and requirements for the various regions and countries were identified. In 1962, the Institute began offering a more diverse group of special courses. In the summer of 1962 a compressed ten-week general course was offered in French. A specialized course on the preparation and appraisal of development projects was offered for the first time in the spring of 1963; this marked the beginning of a trend towards focusing on the preparation and evaluation of investment projects rather than on development plans and programs. A modified project appraisal course in Spanish was also offered in the fall of 1963. Specialized sectoral courses were added over the following decade: industry projects in 1964; agricultural projects in 1965; education projects and transportation projects in1970; urbanization, advanced agricultural projects, and water supply and waste disposal projects in 1973; development banking, transportation policy planning, and agricultural processing industries in 1974; and Rural Credit in 1976. In 1973, the long General Development course was replaced with a shorter macroeconomic course called National Economic Management that provided reduced coverage of basic economic principles.

In the early 1960s, the Institute also began to organize or cosponsor ad hoc courses given outside of Washington. In 1963, a Development Program Course was organized in Seoul, Korea. In 1965 a Joint Regional Project Evaluation Course was held in Jaipur, India, and the following year a Regional Project Evaluation Course was held in Karachi, Pakistan.

EDI began publishing activities immediately following its creation. William Diamond's Development Banks (1957) and Jan Tinbergen's The Design of Development (1958) were the first two EDI publications. By the early 1970s, however, it became the policy of the Institute that EDI research and publication should be limited to material required for its own teaching. In addition to publishing, EDI began a service in 1960 that provided small libraries comprised of books, articles, and reference materials to countries where materials on economic development were unavailable.

In 1970, the EDI's principal responsibilities were described as:

• To conduct courses on principles and practices of economic development, the formulation of economic and financial policies, and the planning and administration of development programs, with special emphasis on practical problems and the experience of the Bank Group and its member countries; the preparation and evaluation of development projects; and other subjects related to the promotion of economic growth;

• To undertake studies related to its training program and, after approval by the Publications Committee, to prepare for publication those studies of general interest;

• To provide, in appropriate cases, technical assistance to other institutions which have programs for training in the subjects mentioned under (1) above;

• And to undertake other work related to the functions described above or required to perform such functions effectively.

While retaining its departmental status the Institute started reporting to the newly formed International Relations Department on March 1, 1973; the IRD was part of the Director, External Relations (DER). The DER was terminated on July 1, 1974, and replaced by the Vice President, External Relations (VPE). EDI began reporting to the VPE at this point.

The 1970s saw substantial expansion and diversification of project courses in terms of specific sectors covered and, especially, locations around the developing world where the courses were offered. In 1972-73, the Institute began to focus on increasing its ability to sponsor and participate in overseas training in cooperation with other training institutions. A rapid increase in the number of overseas courses took place during the mid- to late-1970s; by 1978, two thirds of EDI courses took place in member countries. Courses continued to be developed, teaching materials and methods tested, and teachers trained in Washington. The Bank's Regional offices, which had been provided with increased size and importance following the Bank's reorganization of 1972, cooperated with EDI with respect to course planning and organization.

The principal responsibilities of the EDI as described in 1975 were similar to those in 1970 (listed above) with the exception of an additional objective: [t]o advise and assist in the development of regional and national training institutions. In addition, EDI mirrored the Bank's concerns regarding increasingly complex economies in developing nations as well as issues of low per capita income, growing external debt and the slowdown of the world economy. The Institute addressed these concerns by placing a stronger emphasis on economic and sector studies, analysis of key policy issues, structural adjustment, and technical assistance.

In 1975, the Institute began publishing a quarterly newsletter entitled EDI Review.

In the early 1980s, the Bank established a Task Force to reassess EDI's purposes, approaches, and activities. One of the results of the Task Force's 1983 report, The Future of the Economic Development Institute, was that, on April 1, 1983, EDI was placed under the supervision of the Vice President, Operations Policy (OPSVP). The intention was to create a closer link between EDI and the Bank's Operations Complex and thus to obtain the staffing and substantive support that was deemed necessary.

The Task Force also created a broader mandate and increased activity for EDI. Four new undertakings were established in the mid-1980s: short policy-related seminars to high-level government officials that would explore issues, alternatives, and likely implementation problems in bringing about policy improvements was offered; technical and pedagogical assistance to other training institutions was increased and coordination with the Bank's Regional offices was extended; publication and distribution of training materials was increased; and the Institute's focus on the participation of sub-Saharan African countries was increased.

The Institute's repertoire of course offerings continued to be diversified throughout the 1980s. By the early 1980s, the number of seminars and courses in which EDI was directly involved rose to about 70. By 1989 over 100 training activities were offered and institutional support to 52 training institutions was planned. By this point, the nature and location of courses had also changed. By 1983, 85-90% of courses and seminars were taught in developing countries. The length of seminars ranged from less than one week to three weeks while courses ranged from four to six weeks.

The changes of 1983-84 resulted in the expansion of the Institute's organizational structure. Beginning in 1972, EDI was organized into a small number of units aligned with the sector courses being offered. After the 1983 reorganization and the increase of EDI's activities, the number of divisions and units began to grow. As the Institute's activities continued to increase in subsequent years, units and divisions changed in title. (Click here for an MS EXCEL chart of WBI/EDI's organizational history. The information for this chart was taken from World Bank organizational history charts created by Archives staff in the mid-2000s and from World Bank directories. The dates, therefore, indicate the month represented by a given chart or when a directory was published; the dates do not mean that changes to the organizational structure of WBI/EDI took place at that point.)

Two scholarships were created through the Institute in the 1980s. The Robert S. McNamara Fellowships Program was established in 1982. The fellowship, funded by the Bank and various governments, provides its recipient with full-time study or research at the postgraduate level in fields related to economic development. In 1987, the Joint Japan/World Bank Graduate Scholarship Program was initiated. The program is funded by the government of Japan and administered by EDI. It awards scholarships to individuals from World Bank member countries to undertake graduate studies at universities throughout member countries.

As part of the Bank-wide reorganization of May 1987, EDI was moved from OPSVP to the new Senior Vice President, Policy, Planning and Research (PPR). There was, however, little change to the internal organization of the Institute. Soon after, in the spring of 1988, EDI was moved into the Development Economics Vice Presidency (DEC).

EDI continued to expand its activities in the 1990s. It opened a number of training centers in Eastern Europe and Asia. A master's degree program in economic development for officials from developing countries was created as part of the new World Bank Graduate Scholarships Program. The Institute also began expanding the type of participants it invited to take part in its programming; these included public sector enterprise managers, bankers, civil society leaders as well as opinion makers such as journalists, teachers, parliamentarians, and youth. In 1998, evaluation units and coordinators for each of the Bank's Regions were established in order to ensure the relevance of the Institute's programs and their quality and impact. The use of technological innovation was expanded in the late 1990s. This allowed distance learning to be developed and resulted in the initiation of the Global Development Learning Network (GDLN) by the World Bank in June 2000. The GDLN brings together more than 100 international learning centers (GDLN Affiliates) that offer the use of advanced information and communication technologies to people working in development around the world.

In 1999, EDI merged with the Bank's Staff Learning and Leadership Center to become the World Bank Institute (WBI). On February 1, 2000, WBI was removed from DEC and became its own Vice-Presidency: the World Bank Institute, Office of the Vice President (WBIVP).

In the years following, a renewed effort to reflect and support Bank operations was made by WBI. Courses, programs and training materials were developed that emphasized the cross sectoral and thematic approaches to development and development projects that were increasingly prevalent in Bank operations. Fifteen well-defined thematic programs were developed by the Institute in conjunction with the Bank's Regions and Networks. Responding to individual country needs also became a point of focus with the transition from individual training to the design and delivery of products and services intended to create long-term institutional capacity development.

In July of 2011, WBI launched the e-Institute, a virtual learning platform that provides access to knowledge and communities of practice to users from around the world. Online classes, podcasts, webinars, toolkits, and other resources are provided through the resource.

Robert W. Oliver (1922-1998) was an economist who specialized in World Bank issues. A native of Los Angeles, California, he earned undergraduate and master's degrees from the University of Southern California and a Ph.D. from Princeton University. He served in the U.S. Navy during World War II.

Oliver taught at Pomona College in California, then in 1959 he joined the California Institute of Technology, where he remained for the rest of his career. In 1961 Oliver conducted a series of oral histories under contract to the World Bank, the first time that oral history had been used by the Bank; in the late 1980s he also conducted oral history interviews under contract to the Bank. During 1970-1971, while on leave from Caltech, he worked for the World Bank in the urban development sector and participated in Bank missions to Indonesia and Taiwan. He wrote four books on the World Bank and one on Indonesia that was informed by his work at the Bank.

After George D. Woods died, Louise Woods wanted a biography of him written. According to the Preface in Oliver's biography of Woods, George Woods and the World Bank, a mutual friend introduced her to Oliver, and they subsequently agreed that Oliver would undertake the biography.

Sidney E. Chernick, a Canadian national, was employed by the World Bank from 1969 to 1990. Chernick graduated from the University of Manitoba and gained a Master's Degree from the University of Toronto and a Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Prior to joining the Bank, Chernick was employed by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in Paris, the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA) in Santiago, and, for five years, by the United Nations in New York. He also taught Economics at the University of Melbourne.

Chernick began his employment at the World Bank as an economist in the Central America and Caribbean Department (CAC) in 1969. He was promoted to Senior Economist in 1970.

In 1972 he joined the newly created Policy, Planning and Program Review Department; he would remain in the Department until its termination in 1982. (The Department had different acronyms over the years: EPR from 1972 to 1977 and PPR from 1977 to 1982. It was also referred to as PPPRD and PP&PR.) The basic functions of the PPPRD were to identify development policy issues, to prepare or coordinate analysis of alternative program and policies, and to supervise the presentation of policy papers at the appropriate level of management. It provided guidelines for analysis in economic reports and country programs and reviewed country programs before their submission to the President to ensure the quality of economic analysis, consistency with Bank development objectives, and consideration of alternative strategies.

The PPPRD consisted of only two divisions during its existence: the Policy Planning Division (PPRPP) and the Program Review Division (PPRPR). Chernick was named Division Chief of the Program Review Division in or around September of 1973 and reported directly to PPPRD Director, Hahbub ul Haz. (Ul Haz and the PPPRD, in turn, reported to Hollis B. Chenery, Vice President of the Office of the Vice President Development Policy [DPS].) Chernick's division was responsible for:

• Establishing guidelines for the content of Economic Reports and, in cooperation with the Programming and Budgeting Department, of Country Program Papers;

• Managing the review of Economic Reports and Country Program Papers in close collaboration with the Regional Offices and the Programming and Budgeting Department with a view to evaluating alternative policy options for management;

• Evaluating the annual and 5-year country economic work program of the Regional Offices;

• Maintaining communication links between the DPS and the Regional Offices on issues of development strategy and Bank policy at the country or regional levels;

• Analyzing selected economic development issues of Bank-wide relevance and ad hoc questions raised by management; and

• Providing support for selected economic missions.

In the spring of 1976, Chernick was named Senior Advisor in PPPRD and would serve in this capacity until the Bank's and PPPRD's reorganization in 1982. He would also serve as Acting Director at various times during the decade in which he was a PPPRD staff member.

In February of 1982, Chernick was named Assistant Director of the newly-established Country Policy Department (CPD). The CPD replaced the PPPRD and assumed its functions and much of its staff (as well as staff from the former Development Economics Department [DED]). Chernick's main responsibilities in the CPD included:

• Providing advice and support to the regions on designing assistance strategies and preparing CPPs, structural adjustment and other program lending, and carrying out policy dialogue with member countries;

• Serving management through reviews of CPPs and country economic and sector work plans, through advice on lending allocation, and through work on operational policy issues;

• Conducting applied research and preparing papers on such issues as trade strategies, resource mobilization, economic management, employment productivity and welfare;

• Acting as a secretariat for the Operations Policy Sub-Committee of the Managing Committee.

In June 1983, Chernick was named a Senior Advisor of CPD.

In January of 1984, Chernick moved to the South Asia Country Programs Department (ASADR) under the title of Senior Economist. Chernick's activities involved: supporting the design and quality of economic and sector work by undertaking regional, country, and project analyses; and raising the capacity of the practitioners by providing guidance, organizing training courses and regional seminars, and participating actively in recruitment.

On November 1, 1986, Chernick joined the Economic Development Institute (EDI, later the World Bank Institute [WBI]), the Bank's capacity development branch. Chernick was named the Advisor on Senior Policy Seminars in the Institute's Front Office. These seminars, beginning in the mid-1980s, offered short policy-related seminars to high-level government officials that would explore issues, alternatives, and likely implementation problems in bringing about policy improvements. Chernick remained in this position until he retired from the World Bank in 1990.

Hollis Burnley Chenery was born January 6, 1918 in Richmond, Virginia. He received a Ph.D. in economics from Harvard University in 1950.

From 1949 - 1950, he worked at the U. S. Economic Cooperation Administration in Paris, and from 1950 - 1952, he was chief of the Program Division at the U.S. Mutual Security Agency in Rome. He returned to U. S. government service in 1961, serving at the United States Agency for International Development until 1965.

From 1952 to 1961, Hollis Chenery was a professor of economics at Stanford University. From 1965 to 1970 and again in 1983, he was a professor of economics at Harvard University.

Chenery served as The Economic Advisor to the President of the World Bank from September 1970 to September 1972. In October 1972, he became Vice President, Development Policy (VPD) following the Bank's Reorganization in 1972. In May 1982, he became the Vice President of the Economics and Research Staff (VPERS). He resigned from that position in September 1982 and remained on the Bank staff as a Senior Adviser until February 1, 1983.

Hollis Chenery died September 1, 1994.

Functional responsibility for financial sector development originated in the Financial Development Unit (INDFD) established in July 1983, which was located in the Industry Department (IND) of the Energy and Industry Vice Presidency (EIS). This unit was founded in the context of the 1980s debt crisis and turmoil in developing nations' financial sectors and institutions. The INDFD had the responsibility to carry out policy, research, and review work with regard to the financial sector. It additionally coordinated work with financial intermediaries in other Bank units as well as the International Finance Corporation (IFC), and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). In July 1985, INDFD was upgraded to a Division. Millard F. Long assumed the role of first Chief and later Division Chief in INDFD from 1983 to 1987.

As part of a Bank-wide reorganization in 1987, the IND was terminated. The staff and functions of the INDFD were transferred to the Financial Policy and Systems Division located in the Country Economics Department (CECFP) of the Development Economics Vice Presidency (DEC). CECFP was created in July 1987 with five other divisions, including: the Trade Policy Division (CECTP); the Debt and Macroeconomic Adjustment Division (CECDA); the Public Economics Division (CECPE); the Public Sector Management and Private Sector Development Division (CECPS); and the Special Studies Division (CECSS). CEC was responsible for providing leadership in the design and analysis of country development policies through researchpolicy work, operation advice and support, and training and liaison with outside research groups. CECFP focused specifically on financial policy and systems for financial sector lending, regulation, supervision, and restructuring. CECFP was led by Division Chief Millard Long from 1987 to 1991, and later by Andrew Len Tao Sheng in 1992.

As part of another reorganization that took effect in January 1993, the majority of financial sector development functions and staff from CECFP were transferred to the newFinancial Sector Development Department (FSD) located in the new Finance and Private Sector Development Vice Presidency (FPDVP). Some staff were also transferred to the Finance & Private Sector Development Division (PRDFP) located in the Policy Research Department (PRD) of the Development Economics Vice Presidency (DEC), which served as a research oriented division, and worked closely with the FPDVP departments, including FSD. FSD was created alongside two other subordinate departments in FPDVP, including the Private Sector Development Department (PSD) and the Industry and Energy Department (IEN). FSD was assigned responsibility for:

• formulating and disseminating policies and guidelines with regard to its sector;

• monitoring the effectiveness of policies and approaches;

• maintaining effective relations with Bank-external organizations and professionals in the field; and

• providing operational support, especially in the areas of financial sector organization and regulatory frameworks, specialized finance, bank restructuring and management, and capital markets development.

FSD work focused on the following themes: bank and enterprise restructuring; finance intermediation; capital markets development; and financial sector infrastructure. Millard Long served as Acting Director for FSD in 1993, and was later succeeded by Director Gary Perlin from 1994 to 1995 and by Acting Director Diana McNaughton from 1996 to 1997.

As part of the reorganization of the Bank in 1997, the FPDVP was terminated and replaced with the Finance, Private Sector Development and Infrastructure Network (FPSI). The research division of the PRDFP was also terminated at this time. FPSI was created along with three other networks: the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network (PREM); the Human Development Network (HDN); and the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Network (ESSD). The FPSI consisted of four subordinate departments: the Financial Sector Department (FSD); the Private Sector Development Department (PSD); the Energy, Mining, and Telecommunications Department (EMT); and the Transportation, Water, and Urban Development Department (TWU). The responsibilities of FPSI included:

• developing vibrant private sectors with rapid job growth by implementing the financial sector reinforcement program;

• speeding up the emergence of livable, bankable, and competitive cities;

• promoting the growth in energy and infrastructure provision that is environmentally sensitive;

• stemming infrastructure deficit; and

• sharing in the promise of the Information Age.

FSD activities focused on strengthening banking, capital markets, and regulatory policy in emerging economies. In 1998, the FPSI added the financial sector oriented Special Financial Operations Unit (SFO) and the Capital Markets Development Department (CMD) to address the East Asia Financial Crisis of 1997.

The FPSI was terminated, however, in January 1999 because the network became too large with multiple sector focuses; greater response was also needed for the East Asia Financial Crisis from financial sector related units. As a result, the functions of PSD, EMT, and TWU were transferred to the newly established Private Sector Development and Infrastructure Vice Presidency (PSIVP) and the FSD, CMD, and SFO functions were transferred to the financial sector oriented Financial Operations Vice Presidency (FIOVP). At its establishment, FIOVP departments included: the Financial Sector Practice Department (FSP); the Capital Markets Development Department (CMD); and the Special Financial Operations Department (SFO). The FIOVP, however, was short lived and was terminated in June 1999.

The FIOVP was replaced by the Financial Sector Vice Presidency (FSEVP), which was launched in July 1999. FSEVP retained the FSD, FSP, CMD, and SFO departments of FIOVP, and added the new Banking and Financial Institutions Department (BFI). The joint IMF and World Bank Financial Sector Assessment Program (FSAP) pilot program was also launched in 1999 as a response to the East Asia Financial Crisis, and was designed to rapidly assess and respond to financial sector crises. The FSP department assumed FSAP responsibilities, and FSEVP representatives were also responsible to sit on the joint IMF and Bank Financial Sector Liaison Committee (FSLC) to oversee implementation of FSAP missions, and review subsequent policy development and lending.

In 2001, the FSEVP was restructured to three departments, including: the Financial Sector Strategy and Policy Department (FSP); the Financial Sector Development Department (FSD); and the Banking and Financial Restructuring Department (BFR). FSEVP was restructured again in 2003, at which point it included: the Global Partnerships Program; the Financial Market Integrity and Money Laundering Program; the Financial Market Integrity Group (FSEFI); the FIRST Trust Fund Initiative (FSEFT); the Financial Sector Strategy and Policy Department (FSEGP); and the Financial Sector Operations and Policy Department (OPD).

In 2006, the FSEVP was terminated and its functions were transferred to the Financial and Private Sector Development Vice Presidency (FPDVP). The FPDVP was organized jointly by the World Bank, the International Finance Corporation (IFC), and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA). This joint effort was intended to combine the Bank's financial sector policy expertise and the IFC's rapid response advisory services to more effectively meet the growing demand for private and financial sector development services from developing countries. The FSEVP functions were combined with existing IFC private sector development oriented units, including: the Corporate Governance and Capital Markets Advisory (CCG); the Global Corporate Governance Forum (GCGF); and the Investment Climate Group (CIC). The joint IFC and MIGA Foreign Investment Advisory Service (FIAS) was also included in the new FPDVP. The transferring of FSE functions created the following new groups and advisory services: the Financial Market Integrity Group (FPDFI); the FinancialMarkets for Social Safety Net Group (FPDSN); the Financial Systems Group (FPDFS); and the Financial Sector Reform and Strengthening (FIRST) Initiative. Around 2010, the FPDVP was restructured, and the following groups were added: the Global Indicators and Analysis Group (GIA); the Global Markets Development Group (GCM); and the Financial Inclusion Group. FPDFS, CGP, CIC, FIRST, FIAS, and CGP units were retained.

The Private Sector Development (PSD) Sector of the World Bank is broadly defined as those "activities which encourage the growth of an efficient private sector capable of contributing to economic development." The origins of PSD functions in the World Bank evolved out of the Development Finance Companies Department (DFC) established in 1968. The DFC replaced the Development Banks Department (DBD), which was transferred to the World Bank from its World Bank Group organization affiliate, the International Finance Corporation (IFC). DFC reported directly to the Office of the President (EXC). Development finance companies or DFCs (e.g. commercial and development banks, apex banks, government banks, and state enterprise finance banks) were used as a means to finance or serve as intermediaries for private sector investment for small and medium enterprises (SME). Unlike the IFC, the Bank did not directly lend to private sector enterprises, but their support in developing DFCs served as an indirect way to bolster private sector development because it created greater efficiency and expanded availability of credit for private sector lending. DFC was given the following tasks: expand the work program with respect to private and government-controlled development finance companies (DFCs); to streamline procedures for this work within the World Bank Group; and permit the IFC to concentrate on direct financing and promotion of projects in the private sector. More specific responsibilities of DFC Department included:

• keeping informed about and advising the World Bank Group on policies, procedures and problems of DFCs;

• evaluating proposals for DFC establishment, reorganization of expansion;

• recommending a suitable capital structure, organization and operating policies for new DFCs, and preparing and supervising a program for raising the needed capital;

• maintaining close contact with all Bank-assisted DFCs and monitoring their performance;

• assisting in the recruitment and training, in cooperation with the EconomicDevelopment Institute, of the management of these institutions; and

• reviewing appraisals of projects submitted for financing by DFCs.

On the date of its establishment, the DFC Department had seven operational divisions. Five of them, Division I (DFCD1), Division II (DFCD2), Division III (DFCD3), Division IV (DFCD4), and Division V (DFCD5) were transferred from the IFC. Two new divisions, Division VI (DFCD6) and Division VII (DFCD7), were added to explore potential DFC activities in Africa and Latin America. With the exception of Divisions VI and VII, the divisions were not based on geographical regions. William Diamond assumed the role of DFC Director.

In 1971, the seven DFC divisions were consolidated into five, which were based on geographical regions: Latin America and the Caribbean (DFCD1); Europe, Middle East, and North Africa (DFCD2); Africa (DFCD3); South Asia (DFCD4); and East Asia (DFCD5).

As part of the Bank-wide reorganization in 1972, DFC began reporting to the Vice President of CentralProjects (CPS). Most DFC staff was decentralized to regional projects departments in the newly established Regional Vice Presidencies. This left a core Department of advisors with responsibility for operational and development policy, research, operational support, and quality control for project and sector work. The exception was the Africa Division, which changed its acronym to DFCAF and remained intact as a centralized division. In that same year, Douglas Gustafson became the new Director of DFC.

In 1975, David Gordon took over as Director for DFC.

On February 11, 1977, as a result of the realignment of all industrial activities related to the Bank's Urban Poverty Program, DFC was terminated. Most of DFC functions were transferred to the new Intermediaries Unit (IDFIN) of the Industrial Development and Finance Department (IDF), which was assigned the responsibility for operational support to the Regional Vice President on lending to development finance companies. The IDFIN was short lived, however, andwas terminated in the summer of 1978.

In the period from the late 1960s and 1970s, the DFC served as the closest unit that resembled activities related to private sector development sector within the Bank. The Bank did not have an explicit unit devoted to PSD during this time, and the affiliate IFC remained the focal point for private sector development related functions of the broader World Bank Group. The Bank's private sector development approach consisted of lending through intermediaries such as DFCs, or investment in public sector entities and infrastructure, which was intended to create a stable and efficient environment for long-term private sector growth. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, however, the economies of many Bank member countries were increasingly perceived as being overburdened with overly large, wasteful, and inefficient public sector entities that stymied economic development. In response, the Bank began a shift towards establishing a different balance for public and private sectors. The new approach included advocating for privatization of public services, development of financial markets, reduction and limitation of public spending, and investment in private enterprises. As a consequence, Bank private sector development activities evolved from the public sector reform initiatives of this period.

In 1983, the Bank established the Public Sector Management Unit (PPDPS) located in the Projects Policy Department (PPD). PPDPS was given the responsibility of advising and developing strategies for improving the management of governments and government-controlled enterprises by reducing excessive staffing, and privatization of selected public services. Arturo Israel was named Chief for PPDPS.

As part of the 1987 Bank-wide reorganization, the PPD was terminated. The functions and staff of the PPDPS were transferred to the newly established Public Sector Management and Private Sector Development Division (CECPS) located in the Country Economics Department (CEC) of the Development EconomicsVice Presidency (DEC). CECPS was created in July 1987 with five other divisions, including: the Trade Policy Division (CECTP); the Debt and Macroeconomic Adjustment Division (CECDA); the Public Economics Division (CECPE); the Financial Policy and System Division (CECFP); and the Special Studies Division (CECSS). CECPS responsibilities included:

• providing intellectual leadership;

• advising on Bank policy;

• participating in missions to prepare and appraise projects and advise governments;

• acting as a liaison with other agencies active in public sector management and private sector development;

• developing and implementing training courses for Bank staff; and

• promoting research in the areas of public sector management and private sector development.

CECPS specifically focused on private sector development activities such as privatization of state-enterprises, performing private sector assessments, and improving the relations between the public and private sector through regulatory reform. Arturo Israel assumed the role as Division Chief for the newly established CECPS.

In 1989, at the request of World Bank President Barber Conable, a Private Sector Development Review Group was established to assess private sector development activities in the World Bank Group and make recommendations for further expansion of private sector development services in the World Bank, IFC, and a newly established World Bank affiliate, the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA). The Private Sector DevelopmentReview Group and members of CECPS were responsible for summarizing private sector development activities within the World Bank Group and produced the report Developing the Private Sector: A Challenge of the World Bank Group. The subsequent report helped produce the Action Program on Private Sector Development, and the Private Sector Development Committee, which oversaw the implementation of the Action Program. This expansion was pursued due to the Bank Group member countries growing demand for private sector development related services. The Action Program resulted in: the capital expansion of the IFC; greater collaboration between the Bank, IFC, and MIGA in private sector development functions; and a larger private sector development profile in the Bank.

In the Bank, expansion of private sector development related activities included the creation of the Private Sector Operations Group (CFSPS) within the newly established Co-financing and Financial Advisory Services Vice Presidency (CFS) in June 1989. CFSPS did not replace the research and policy analysis oriented CECPS, but served a different function in providing private sector development advisory services and resource mobilization to membership countries through the Bank Regions via their Country Departments. CFS responsibilities included:

• assisting member countries in restructuring debt;

• assisting member countries with deregulation, public sector restructuring and privatization;

• advising member countries on management of their foreign financial assets and liabilities; and

• procuring co-financing arrangements from commercial and public sources.

CFSPS was responsible for supporting Bank operations in mobilizing private and official participation for private sector led investments in developing countries. The CFSPS private investments included physical infrastructure projects, and restructuring of public sector enterprises through privatization and divestiture. CFSPS was created alongside the Financial Advisory Services Group (CFSFA) and the Co-financing Group (CFSCO). Ibrahim I. Elwan assumed the role of Manager of CFSPS.

In 1990, Mary M. Shirley replaced Arturo Israel as Division Chief for CECPS.

In 1991, the CFSPS was renamed the Private Sector Financial Operations Group (CFSPS). In that same year, the Private Co-financing Group (CFSPC) was added to CFS.

In February 1992, CFS underwent a reorganization to strengthen private sector development functions and to help streamline the process of financial resource mobilization. The re-organization included the merger of CFSPS, CFSPC, and some of the staff and functions from CFSFA. The new merger was renamed the Private Sector Finance and Advisory Services Group (CFSPS). The Group re-organized again in 1992, however, and was renamed the Private Sector Development and Privatization Group (CFSPS). Kevin Young assumed the role of Manager for the new CFSPS.

As part of the Bank-wide reorganization that took effect in January 1993, CECPS was terminated and its functions and staff were transferred to two new Bank units. Some of the private sector development oriented research staff in CECPS were transferred to the Finance and Private Sector Development Division (PRDFD) located in the newly established Policy and Research Department (PRD) of the Development Economics Vice Presidency (DEC). The bulk of CECPS staff and functions were transferred to the Private Sector Department (PSD) located in the new Finance and Private Sector Development Vice Presidency (FPDVP). CFSPS was left unchanged in this re-organization.

At its establishment, PSD was created alongside two other complimentary departments in FPDVP: the Financial Sector Development Department (FSD), and the Industry and Energy Department (IEN). PSD responsibilities included:

• formulating and disseminating policies and guidelines with regard to its sector;

• monitoring the effectiveness of policies and approaches;

• liaising with Bank-external organizations and professionals in the field; and

• providing operational support aimed at improving the enabling environment for private sector development through reforms of the regulatory framework, small business development, accounting and auditing infrastructure, market and technology information, and trade facilitation services.

PSD did not have any formal divisions, but was organized into task-specific teams, each led by a designated manager. The teams included: the Restructuring and Privatization Team; the Policy and Regulatory Framework Team; and the Private Sector Development Team. Magdi Iskander assumed the role of PSD Director.

PRDFP, which worked closely with PSD and the FSD department in the FPDVP, focused specifically on research and policy analysis. PRDFP work was organized under two general themes of financial markets and the public-private boundary. Mary M. Shirley assumed the role of Division Chief for PRDFP.

In 1996, the CFS was terminated. As a consequence, the staff and functions of the Private Sector Development and Privatization Group (CFSPS) were transferred to PSD in FPDVP, and its acronym changed to PSDPS.

As part of the reorganization of the Bank in 1997, the FPDVP was terminated and replaced with the Finance, Private Sector Development and Infrastructure Network (FPSI). The research division of the PRDFP was also terminated at this time. FPSI was created along with three other networks: the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network (PREM); the Human Development Network (HDN); and the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Network (ESSD). The FSD, PSD, and IEN departments of FPDVP were transferred to FPSI, and joined a new Transportation, Water, and Urban Development Department (TWU). IEN's acronym was changed to EMT with the creation of FPSI. The responsibilities of FPSI included:

• developing vibrant private sectors with rapid job growth by implementing the financial sector reinforcement program;

• speeding up the emergence of livable, bankable, and competitive cities;

• promoting the growth in energy and infrastructure provision that is environmentally sensitive;

• stemming infrastructure deficit; and

• sharing in the promise of the Information Age.

Within PSD, the following groups were created: the Private Sector Development and Privatization Group (PSDPS); the Private Participation in Infrastructure Unit (PSDPP); the Business Environment Unit (PSDBE); the Knowledge Management Unit (PSDKM); the Enterprise Group (PSDEN); and the Micro-finance and Small and Medium Enterprises Group (PSDMF). PSD focused on the following areas: enterprise reform and privatization; increasing private provision in infrastructure (PPI) and social services; micro-finance and small medium enterprise (SME) promotion; and strengthening business environment. Magdi Iskander remained the PSD Director for the new FPSI.

The FPSI was short lived, however, and terminated in January 1999. The FPSI was partially terminated because it was too large with multiple sector focuses. WorldBank Group President James D. Wolfensohn also sought greater integration of the World Bank and its affiliate IFC. IFC specialized in private sector development advisory and investment services, and greater integration helped eliminate duplication of private sector development related activities between the Bank and IFC, and would help create more efficient delivery of private sector development services. The result of this integration was the creation of the Joint IFC and Bank Private Sector Development and Infrastructure Vice Presidency (PSIVP). Functions and staff from PSD, EMT, and TWU departments of FPSI were transferred to the new PSIVP. The staff and functions of FSD were transferred to the new Financial Operations Vice Presidency (FIOVP). At the time of its establishment, PSIVP included the following joint IFC and Bank departments and units: the Oil, Gas, and Chemicals Department (COC); the Small and Medium Enterprise Department (SME); the Global Information and Communications Technologies Department (CIT); the Mining Department (CMN); and the Private Sector Advisory Services (PSAS). To facilitate this new integration, Peter Woicke was given the dual role of IFC Executive Vice President and Managing Director for the World Bank. Nemat Talaat Shafik assumed the role as Director for PSIVP, reporting to Peter Woicke.

In late 1999, the former PSD units of FPSI, the joint IFC and World Bank Foreign Investment Advisory Services (FIAS), and the IFC Corporate Finance Services (CFS) were integrated and mapped into new units for the PSAS department of the PSIVP. The new units of PSAS included: the Rapid Response Unit (PSARR); the Corporate Governance Unit (PSACG); the Private Provision of Public Services Unit (PSAPP); the Business Environment and Foreign Investment Unit (PSABE and PSAFI); the Privatization Policy and Transaction Unit (PSAPT and PSAPO); and the Privatization Strategy and Policy Unit (PSAGM).

In 2002, CMN was merged with COC to form the new Oil, Gas, Mining, and Chemicals Department (COC) in PSIVP.

In June 2003, PSIVP was terminated and its functions and staff were spilt among the new joint IFC and Bank Private Sector Development Vice Presidency (PSDVP) and the Bank's new Infrastructure Network (INF). The COC and CIT departments of PSIVP were transferred to INF, while PSAS and SME were transferred and mapped into PSDVP. At its establishment, PSDVP consisted of the following joint IFC and Bank departments and units: the Investment Climate Department (CIC); the Private Sector Development Operations (CIO); and the Small and Medium Enterprises Department (CSM). SME functions and staff were absorbed by the CSM, and the PSAS functions and staff were absorbed by CIC. Michael Klein assumed the role as PSD Vice President, reporting to Peter Woicke.

Around 2004, the PSDVP added the Rapid Response Unit, the Corporate Governance Department (CCG), and the Global Corporate Governance Forum (GCGF).

In 2006, the PSDVP was terminated and its functions were transferred to the new Financial and Private Sector Development Vice Presidency (FPDVP). The FPDVP integrated the departments and units from the PSDVP and the Bank's Financial Sector Vice Presidency (FSEVP). This integration effort was sought to combine the Bank's financial sector development policy expertise and the IFC's private sector development rapid response advisory services to more effectively meet the growing demand for private and financial sector development services from developing countries. At its establishment, the FPDVP included: the Corporate Governance and Capital Markets Advisory (CCG); the Global Corporate Governance Forum (GCGF); the Investment Climate Group (CIC); the Foreign Investment Advisory Service (FIAS); the Financial Market Integrity Group (FPDFI); the Financial Markets for Social Safety Net Group (FPDSN); the Financial Systems Group (FPDFS); and the Financial Sector Reform and Strengthening (FIRST) Initiative. Around 2010, the FPDVP was restructured, and the following groups were added: the Global Indicators and Analysis Group (GIA); the Global Markets Development Group (GCM); and the Financial Inclusion Group. FPDFS, CGP, CIC, FIRST, FIAS, and CGP units were retained.

The Development Policy Vice Presidency was established in the 1972 Bank reorganization. Before that time, the Bank President had an Economic Adviser on his immediate staff. Irving Friedman, who was appointed by President George D. Woods in October 1964, was the first to hold this position. Friedman supervised the Economics Department and the Director of Special Economic Studies in 1965, but prior to his departure from the position in 1970 he supervised four units: Economics Department, Economic Program Department, Computing Activities Department, and Development Research Center.

Hollis B. Chenery succeeded Friedman as Economic Adviser to the President in October 1970. Chenery initiated a comprehensive review of the Bank's research program. In the January 1971 Bank reorganization, the Economics staff was divided into three units all reporting to Chenery: the Economics Department; the Economic Program Department; and the Development Research Center. On April 13, 1971, Economic Research in the Bank, the report of the survey conducted by consultant economist Bela Belassa at Chenery's request, was issued. Belassa's report suggested that individual research projects be appraised in terms of their relative cost and benefits and that employment, planning, trade policy, and other new areas of inquiry be subjects of research proposals from the Development Research Center and the Economics Department with active participation of operational departments in the selection and review of the proposals and in the evaluation of completed research. The report concluded that responsibility for setting research priorities, approving the overall research program, and establishing a review process for research should be carried out by an Economic Research Committee chaired by the Economic Adviser to the President. In keeping with Belassa's review recommendations, a Bank-wide Research Committee was established.

When he announced the creation of the Development Policy Vice Presidency (VPD) in 1972, President Robert McNamara saidthat the new vice presidency would increase the Bank's policy formulation capability. Hollis Chenery was named VPD and continued to serve as the President's Economic Adviser. VPD was charged with increasing the Bank's knowledge of the development process and analyzing policies to assure the efficient attainment of development objectives. The Development Policy Staff had wide ranging responsibilities: coordinating policy work in the Bank; preparing papers on development policy and selected sector policy issues; reviewing Country Program Papers; managing the Bank's research program; conducting research on selected sectoral and inter-sectoral problems; operating the debt reporting system; providing country creditworthiness analyses; and providing specialists to support the country and sector economic work of the Regional offices. VPD was assisted by a Research Adviser who was responsible for managing the external research program and a technology adviser responsible for scientific and technology matters in the Bank. In addition, Chenery was assisted by Senior Adviser, Development Policy Ernest Stern. Stern's title changed to Director, Development Policy in 1974, but he continued to report directly to Chenery. Stern left VPD in 1975, but the position of Director, Development Policy continued until the Development Policy Staff evolved into the Economics and Research Staff (ERS).

A Bank-wide Research Committee was established and held its first meeting on April 28, 1971. VPD chaired the committee and the Senior Adviser, Development Policy was Deputy Chairman. The Research Committee was charged with providing advice to Chenery on the scope and content of the research program, recommending the overall level of the External Research Budget (ERB), a separate budget for the Bank's research program that was introduced in 1972, and monitoring and evaluating research. The research activities reviewed by the Research Committee and financed from the ERB all involved outside contracts. Only projects which required external resources (consultants and computer time) were considered eligible for funding from ERB. The identification number (RPO) number was assigned by the Research Committee for approved projects. A P was placed after the RPO number to indicate a proposal for ERB funding for research preparation or a project requiring a small grant. An A was placed after the RPO number to indicate projects involving the application of research methodologies or techniques developed under other Bank research projects to new contexts or new areas.

In 1977, VPD became chair of the committee and director of the staff that prepared The World Development Report. The Development Policy Vice Presidency was succeeded by the Economics and Research Vice Presidency (VPERS) in February 1982 and Hollis B. Chenery became VPERS.

Prior to becoming the World Bank Group's 6th President, Alden Winship "Tom" Clausen (1923-2013) had a long and successful career at Bank of America. After graduating with a law degree from the University of Minnesota in 1949, Clausen joined the BankAmerica Corporation. He was a senior vice president by age 42 and two years later became responsible for the Bank's international lending business. In 1970 he became president and CEO.

When Clausen became World Bank Group President in July 1981, the international economy was deep in recession. This contributed to a growing debt crisis in developing countries. It was also a period characterized by increased skepticism towards foreign aid, particularly by the Ronald Reagan administration in the United States. Clausen's response to these challenges involved an increased reliance on free markets and private sector institutions. He also recognized the need for the Bank to increase cooperation with other agencies when appropriate.

Early in his presidency, Clausen announced three priority areas which would receive special attention during his tenure: agriculture; energy; and Sub-Saharan Africa. Energy sector projects, in particular, were prioritized, as Clausen saw an urgent need to promote new supplies of energy. He announced an immediate 25% increase in energy lending, including substantial amounts for hydroelectric power projects, thus becoming the single most important area for Bank lending during his tenure. With regard to Sub-Saharan Africa, Clausen endorsed and implemented many of the suggestions found in a 1979 Bank study that examined barriers to economic progress in Africa. Recommendations included doubling the amount of aid to Africa to support infrastructure development and agriculture and energy sector funding. It also recommended structural redesign of economic policies in order to promote efficiency, encourage better market incentives for production, reduce subsidies to uncompetitive industries, and promote exports. Related to these objectives and in response to the ongoing debt crisis, the Bank increased funding of sectoral and structural adjustment, committing a total of $12.5 billion for adjustment operations by the time Clausen left the Bank in 1986.

The support of structural reforms required an expansion of the Bank's analytical work. The Bank under Clausen and chief economist Anne Krueger emphasize trade liberalization and became heavily involved in helping governments investigate their economic problems and identify available solutions.

In order to stimulate capital flows from other sources, the World Bank Group under Clausen increased its focus on cofinancing. Clausen turned to export credit agencies and commercial banks with the intention of helping developing countries enter into capital markets. He also increased the number and frequency of aid consortia and consultative groups and endorsed the "B-loan", a loan product that allowed IBRD participation in commercially structured loans. Recognizing that private investment was constrained by investors' inability to manage political risk, the Bank, under the leadership of general counsel Ibrahim Shihata, began planning the formation of an investment insurance agency. The resulting Multilateral Investments Guarantee Agency (MIGA) came into existence in 1988.

As President, Clausen presided over extensive reorganizations of the Bank's economic analysis, research, and policy activities, as well as its Central Projects staff. He also reorganized the way in which his senior management team communicated with him. Immediately upon his appointment, Clausen established a Managing Committee consisting only of the heads of each complex: the Senior Vice Presidents of Operations (Ernest Stern) and Finance (Moeen Qureshi); the Vice Presidents of Development Policy (Hollis Chenery followed by Anne Krueger in 1982), External Relations (Munir P. Benjenk) and Administration (Martin J.W.M. Paijmans); the General Counsel (Heribert Golsong); and the Secretary (Timothy T. Thahane). This Committee functioned as a team makingbasic decisions with regard to development policy strategy, resource acquisition and allocation, operating policies and program planning as well as administrative and financial policies. It was also charged with an immediate review of the Bank's programming, budgeting and control processes.

In 1982 Clausen also established three subcommittees reporting to the aforementioned Managing Committee. These included subcommittees for Operations, Finance, and Personnel and Administration. These subcommittees werechaired by the two Senior Vice Presidents for Operations and Finance and by the Vice President, Personnel and Administration and met whenever necessary to review matters under their jurisdiction.

The President's Council, a holdover from the presidencies of George Woods and Robert McNamara, continued to meet on a weekly basis and provided a forum for the exchange of views and ideas. In 1982, however, it was replaced by the Senior Management Council; the Council met once monthly and served as a forum for the exchange of views and ideas among all vice presidents. Clausen served a single term as President, leaving the Bank in June 1986.

Richard E. Barry was one of the Bank members of the Reorganization Team 1971-1972; Chief Administrative Officer for the East Africa Region 1972-1980; Operations Coordinator of the Administrative Services Department 1980-1983; managed the staff of the Vice President, Personnel and Administration, 1983-1985; Chief of Office Systems Division 1985-1987; Chief of Information Services Division 1987-1989; managed the development of human factors and design strategy for Bank buildings 1990-1992; retired 1992.

Ernest Stern was born in 1933 in Frankfurt, Germany. He spent his childhood in Amsterdam where his family moved before being interned in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp during the Second World War. His family survived internment and after returning to the Netherlands where Stern attended high school, he emigrated to the United States in 1948. He received his education at Queen's College, New York and at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, earning his M.A. and Ph.D. in International Economics. Hejoined USAID in 1963 and held posts in India, Pakistan and Turkey. Stern also served as the Deputy Executive Secretary and Staff Director of the Commission on International Development (the Pearson Commission) from 1968 to 1969 and as Senior Staff Member of the White House Council on International Economic Policy in 1971.

Stern joined the World Bank in 1972 as a Senior Advisor in the Office of the Economic Adviser to the President (January - October 1972). One of his tasks was to administer the economic research program at a time when there was considerable research being done at the World Bank in the absence of a centrally managed program. Stern organized the program by developing priorities, broadening participation with other researchers, and establishing a separate research fund so that projects could be financed outside of the annual administrative budget. The Bank also began to focus on improving dissemination of research.

From 1972 to 1974, Stern served in the newly created research arm of the Bank as Senior Advisor, Development Policy in the Office of the Vice President for Development Policy (VPD). In addition to helping Development Policy Vice President Hollis Chenery run the various departments and manage the economics and policy staff, Stern also focused on country economic reports, country strategies, and regional program review. He also regularly served as the unit's contact point with the Bank's regional units. In 1974, he was promoted to Director, Development Policy (1974-1975).

InOctober 1975, Stern moved to the operations side of the Bank when he was named Vice President, South Asia Region (SAR). In this role he dealt with operations in South Asia, assessing the Bank's participation in projects, country priorities, policies, and economic management problems. Under Stern's leadership, SAR contributed towards an articulation of basic needs and poverty alleviation strategy and the establishment of standards for project implementation.

In 1977, Stern was appointed by Bank President Robert McNamara to supervise the preparation of the Bank's landmark first World Development Report (WDR), which addressed accelerating growth and reducing poverty and was published in 1978.

In 1978, Stern succeeded Burke Knapp as Senior Vice President of Operations. The position was initially re-titled the Vice President of Operations (VPO) but in 1980 the position was again upgraded to Senior Vice President of Operations (SVPOP).

As Chief Operations Officer of the World Bank, Stern implemented a disciplined approach to lending with established operational directives that limited extensions given to loans. He had extended loans discontinued if they were determined unsuccessful through close project monitoring and follow-up. He was also involved in policy and budget for lending discussions with the Board of Executives. Stern was a main promoter of structural adjustment lending and was also an advocate of guarantees as a credit-enhancing tool. He made the latter a new financial instrument when he participated in the debt deal with Chile after the emergence of the debt crisis in 1982. This marked the first time that a guarantee of World Bank authority was used.

Between 1981 and 1986 under Stern's leadership, the Bank's operations function formulated guidance on population resettlement issues, treatment of indigenous people, and the environmental impact of dams. A restructured extension service program to benefit farmers in developing countries was implemented and the role of the Bank's environment sector was also expanded.

Also during this period, Stern proposed to explore whether uncommitted International Development Association (IDA) funds could be mobilized for a special purpose for low-income African countries. In 1985, Stern convened a government donor's meeting in Paris that was successful in creating a Special Facility for Africa (SAF) and initially raising over $1.5 billion. SAF eventually evolved into the Special Program for Africa.

As part of the Bank-wide reorganization of 1987, Stern was named Senior Vice President, Finance (FINSV, 1987-1991). Under his direction, FINSV formulated investment guidelines and changed borrowing strategy and instruments. It developed global bonds, which became a benchmark for large borrowers, and implemented several other new instruments. It also began to make changes to borrowing in the Japanese market, reduced reliance on special Central Bank financing, and made reforms in the currency pooling system. Stern also led a restructuring of the Controller's Office and the Pension Administration to include an oversight function.

From 1991 to 1995, Stern served as Managing Director with oversight of World Bank Group operations in South Asia, Eastern Europe, and the former Soviet Union, as well as the Bank's finance and private sector development sector, treasury operations, and budget. He served as acting president after Lewis Preston's death in 1995.

Stern retired from the World Bank in 1995 and joined J.P. Morgan, after which he became a partner and senior advisor at Rohatyn Group.

Ernest Stern died at home in New York on June 7, 2019 at the age of 85.

Benjamin B. King joined the World Bank in 1947 as an economist. He retired in 1981. During his long career he served in various parts of the Bank: the Economics Department (1947-1949, 1950-1952, 1965-1967), Office of the President (1949-1950), Europe, Africa & Australasia Department (1952-1957), Economic Development Institute (1957-1962), South Asia and Middle East Department (1962-1965), South Asia Department (1967-1970), Special Projects Department (1970-71), Economics Program Department (1971-1972),and Development Policy Staff (1974-1978). He completed his career as the Director, Development Economics Department, 1978-1981. From 1972-1974 King was seconded from the World Bank to serve as an adviser to the Canadian International Development Agency.